My Teaching Strategy For Students - 1394 Words

During my three years in the classroom, I have observed that all children are unique and are unique learners. Although some may categorize children into auditory, visual, and kinesthetic learners, I believe that there is much more to a child learning than placing each child under a specific category. Part of my job as a teacher is to discover throughout the year how each individual student learns best. Part of my teaching strategy for my students includes using not only cooperative learning activities, but also individual learning activities as well. An example of my large learning activities would include morning circle where we sing our good morning songs, assign daily jobs, and participate in calendar. We also learn our theme for the day in the large group. An example of individual learning activities would be our daily writing exercises. Whether we are working on writing our names or the weekly letter, it is more personal learning when it is just the teacher and student working o n the task. Although I have been in the classroom for three years, this is my first year with my very own classroom. With this being said, I am still figuring out what works and what does not. The children are not the only ones learning this year! As I mentioned above, every learner is unique and I work hard every day trying to discover how I can effectively teach each of my eighteen students. Understanding the different learning styles of your students and how to implement them is one of theShow MoreRelatedMy Teaching Strategy For Students1351 Words   |  6 Pages As I look over my teaching, I do notice many weaknesses, but I do notice some strengths as well. Even though I gave the students clear instructions, I believe that I should have done the ‘I do, We do, You do’ strategy with them to compute the prices, discounts, and markups in the introduction activity. I also feel that this whole activity, along with the implementation of the ‘I do, We do, You do’ teaching strategy, really would have been more effective for the students. I had assumed that theirRead MoreTeaching And Learning Styles And Teaching Essay1610 Words   |  7 Pagesdescribe different practices of teaching and learning. Teaching Australia (2008) defined pedagogy as ‘the art and science of educating children, the strategies for using teacher professional knowledge, skills and abilities in order to foster good learning outcomes’ (p.3). Teaching and learning is a two-way process. Teachers choose the effective instruction modes to disse minate knowledge. Students adapt to different learning styles and use different learning strategies to help them process the informationRead MoreReflective Writing Reflection954 Words   |  4 Pageshas become an intrigue part of education as students are routinely asked to demonstrate their knowledge through writing. Students will utilize their ability to write effectively throughout their school years and on into their careers. At the close of this semester, I now understand the terminology â€Å"writing across the curriculum†, and how I can implement it in my own classroom. The class lectures and meetings reinforced the idea that each student is their own individual. That a classroom isRead MoreThe Role Of Nurse Educator Essay1132 Words   |  5 PagesEducational Philosophy I am not new to the role of nurse or educator, but to the role of nursing educator. My motivation to teach future generations of nurses prompted my transition from a clinical nurse to an academic nurse educator. My interest in teaching comes from my own positive experiences as an undergraduate student and from a love of learning. My educational philosophy is a work in progress as I continue to grow as a nurse, educator, and scholar of nursing education. As a novice nursingRead MoreMy Personal Statement On Teaching And Teaching Essay1601 Words   |  7 Pagesunderstanding of initiatives in student learning including the Principles of Learning and Teaching P-12 and the Assessment and Reporting Advice and the ability to implement curriculum programs consistent with their intent. My deep understanding of educational frameworks ensures that my students are provided with an equal opportunity to become successful 21st century, life-long learners. 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Teaching Australia (2008) defined pedagogy as ‘the art and science of educating children, the strategies for using teacher professional knowledge, skills and abilities in order to foster good learning outcomes’ (p.3). Teaching and learning is a two-way process. Teachers choose the effective instruction modes to disseminate knowledge. Students adapt to different learning styles and use different learning strategies to help them process the informationRead MoreExploring The Dynamics Of Educational Psychology1382 Words   |  6 Pagesfield of Educational Psychology because it promotes effective teaching and learning. If they stay updated, they will continue to learn new teaching methods and learning styles that will help their students to succeed. I think if educators are only sticking to the past research that they learned in educational psychology rather than current research, they may not be making any improvement with the academic p erformance of their students. Required educational psychology courses. I do think that it shouldRead MoreThe Effects Of My Professional Decisions And Actions On Students Through Self Reflective Journals890 Words   |  4 Pagessuch as teaching. Teachers are always self-reflecting to analyze and evaluate their own teaching methods in order to find out what works and what needs to improve. With this information in hand, teachers can come up with strategies to improve certain areas of their teaching. There are many tools teachers can use to self-reflect. As a teacher, I will continually evaluate the effects of my professional decisions and actions on students through self-reflective journals, video recordings, students’ formalRead MoreStandard 2 : Teaching And Learning1382 Words   |  6 PagesStandard 2: Teaching and Learning 1. Describe your evidences: What are they? In what context were they created and/or used? The first artifact attached for Standard Two: Teaching and Learning, is a presentation of classroom management procedures. The presentation includes rules, a daily schedule, daily routines, and behavior management strategies. This presentation also informs the students of emergency procedure protocol. The students are given the teacher’s expectations of their behavior throughout

The Role Of Female Dentists With An Honest - 877 Words

Ashlyn Runnings -- Proudly Recommended by Chapter K, Idaho As a Senior at Pocatello High School, Ashlyn Runnings has livedin a single parent family since she was two years old. But unlike many teens with similar circumstances Ashlyn has learned to be grateful for the two loving families she has, her father and two half siblings in California and her mother and twin sister in Pocatello. Both families have always been supportive guiding her education and development. She appreciates her mother’s independent, determined spirit and her father’s willingness to love and support her and her sister from a long distance. While achieving high academic standards with a current 3.8 GPA, her goal is to eventually earn a doctorate in Dental Medicine. She was enrolled in honors classes in middle school and has excelled in numerous Advanced Placement (AP) classes in her Junior and Senior years. She intends to elevate the role of female dentists with an honest, dedicated practice and serve in a third world country. Ashlyn’s high academic standards exemplify her work ethic just as her volunteerism reflects her dedication to community involvement. With volunteering being one of her greatest strengths, she uses her time, talents and enthusiasm to improve the community she lives in. She believes â€Å"volunteering promotes the well-being of others through truth and love.† Her service began while attending Irving Middle School as an aide in Mrs. Baker’s class for special needs students. AsShow MoreRelatedA Hard Day s Night1008 Words   |  5 Pagesare the most trusted profession (2015). Americans have continued to vote for nurses as the most honest job sixteen times in the last seventeen years. Saad also reports that nurses have no other serious competition to outrank them. 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Simulation Performance Evaluation of Aodv Protocol with Qos Essay Sample free essay sample

Abstraction: Ad hoc Mobile networking is a current active research country. They can be used in agribusiness for monitoring and control of environmental parametric quantities in the signifier of radio detector webs. The purpose of this paper is public presentation rating of protocol of these Ad hoc webs i. e. QoS-enabled AODV protocol. The public presentation rating is done by agencies of its comparing with normal AODV protocol. QoS stands for Quality of Service. The research proposed some sweetenings to the AODV protocol to supply QoS by adding extensions to Route Discovery messages. related to bandwidth appraisal. This paper focuses on three of the parametric quantities viz. Traffic Rate. Speed of nodes A ; Pause Time of nomadic nodes. For rating purpose the public presentation prosodies used are Average end-to terminal Delay. Packet Delivery Ratio ( PDR ) . Normalized Overhead Load ( NOL ) and Throughput. Performance of the AODV protocol for QoS every bit good as Non-QoS is evalu ated with regard to these parametric quantities. We will write a custom essay sample on Simulation Performance Evaluation of Aodv Protocol with Qos Essay Sample or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Keywords: Ad hoc. AODV. Bandwidth Appraisal I. Introduction In an Ad hoc Mobile web. every node in the web carries its ain router with it. and all nodes cooperate in transporting traffic. The whole doctrine of the Ad hoc networking theoretical account is a extremist going from the extremely structured and often hierarchal theoretical accounts employed for both local country and broad country networking. presently in usage. The scope of possible state of affairss in which Ad hoc networking can be exploited is immense. What mature and robust Ad hoc networking offers is virtually cosmopolitan connectivity. limited merely by the nexus public presentation and routing holds of the take parting nodes. and their connectivity to the established fixed web. As shown in Fig. 1 Ad hoc webs are good within the bounds of today’s engineering. provided that suited Ad hoc routing protocols exist and are implemented. Fig. 1. Ad-hoc NetworkingInactive webs largely use either Distance Vector ( DV ) or Link State ( LS ) routing algorithms. neither of which are stunningly good suited to extremely dynamic topologies. In a extremely dynamic radio web. such protocols run into a figure of troubles: †¢ topologies may be extremely excess. with some nodes being in the state of affairs of being able to link to a really big figure of neighbours. while others see really few neighbours. †¢ bandwidth is scarce and can non be wasted. †¢ battery power on portable equipment is a finite resource that can non be wasted. †¢ high rates of topology alteration require high update rates. A. Routing Models Routing theoretical accounts can besides be divided in following ways:1 ) Proactive Routing2 ) Reactive Routing3 ) Hybrid RoutingThis paper focuses on three of the parametric quantities viz. traffic rate. velocity A ; pause clip of nomadic nodes. For rating purpose the public presentation prosodies used are mean end-to terminal hold. package bringing ratio ( PDR ) . normalized overhead burden ( NOL ) and throughput. Measure the AODV protocol for QoS every bit good as Non-QoS is done with three of the parametric quantities A ; four public presentationprosodies by agencies of graphical representation of their interrelatednesss. B. AODV Protocol Overview AODV routing protocol is an on-demand reactive routing protocol that uses routing tabular arraies with one entry per finish. When a beginning node needs to happen a path to a finish. it starts a path find procedure. based on deluging. to turn up the finish node. as shown in Fig. 2. Fig. 2. Route Discovery CycleUpon having a path petition ( RREQ ) package. intermediate nodes update their routing tabular arraies for a rearward path to the beginning. Similarly. the frontward path to the finish is updated upon response of a path answer ( RREP ) package originated either by the finish itself or any other intermediate node that has a current path to the finish. The AODV protocol uses sequence Numberss to find timelines of each package and to forestall the creative activity of cringles. Expiry timers are used to maintain the path entries updated. Link failures are propagated by a path mistake ( RERR ) message from a broken nexus to the beginning node of the corresponding path. When the following hop nexus interruptions. RERR packages are sent by the get downing node of the nexus to a set of n the finish. C. AODV and QoS-AODV The Ad hoc On Demand Distance Vector ( AODV ) protocol is proposed by Perkins. The research focuses on sweetening in public presentation of normal AODV protocol by bettering the QoS. The assorted QoS parametric quantities can be stated as bandwidth. cost. end-to-end hold. detain fluctuation ( jitter ) . throughput. chance of package loss. battery charge. treating power etc. Assorted Performance prosodies are to be studied for Performance rating of QoS-enabled AODV protocol. Research is traveling on towards Performance Improvement by stressing any of these parametric quantities. This research considers the Bandwidth parametric quantities so as to better QoS. II. Execution The execution subdivision discusses how AODV protocol was implemented and analyzed for the comparing. This includes the platform i. e. Fedora and the tools such as ns2 ( Network Simulator version 2 ) . NAM ( Network Animator ) and Gnuplot. Then the nucleus execution is discussed. A. Need of Fedora All simulation. execution and analysis work was done on Linux. The spirit of Linux used for this intent was Fedora. The ground for taking this particular runing system for research work is that. it is one of the most stable and robust platforms around. Secondly Linux systems provide more security than others and security is a really indispensable component in web environments. Since the platform provides the footing for making everything. therefore it becomes indispensable to discourse some nucleus characteristics of this platform. B. Network Simulator ns2 After puting up the platform. package named ns2 was set up on it which was used for all the analysis and simulation work apart from other tools used. ns2 is the de facto criterion for web simulation. Its behaviour is extremely trusted within the networking community. It is developed at ISI. California. and is supported by the DARPA and NSF. C. Core Execution 1 ) Basic Protocol Simulation: This subdivision discusses how the AODV protocol was simulated and implemented. First the platform i. e. Fedora 8 was set up in a practical environment. Then ns2 was set up on the platform on which the above said protocols were implemented. ns2 requires a book file to be run on it. These book files are written in a linguistic communication called TCL ( Tool Command Language ) . We have made usage of shell scripting A ; Gnuplot for plotting of graphs. 2 ) QoS-Enabled Protocol Simulation: In this research a quality of service ( QoS ) architecture for back uping real-time informations transmittal in nomadic Ad hoc webs ( MANETs ) is explored. The QoS architecture includes a QoS conveyance bed. QoS routing. queue direction and a precedence MAC protocol. Through simulations. it is found that the QoS architecture reduces packet loss and greatly improves the resource use in MANETs. 3 ) QoS architecture: Figure 3 shows proposed QoS architecture. which includes all networking beds from the application bed to the MAC bed. The bold lines indicate the flow of informations packages and the narrow lines indicate the flow of control packages. B. Bandwidth Estimation In a distributed Ad hoc web. a host’s available bandwidth is non merely decided by the natural channel bandwidth. but besides by its neighbor’s bandwidth use and intervention caused by other beginnings. each of which reduces a host’s available bandwidth for conveying informations. Therefore. applications can non decently optimise their cryptography rate without cognition of the position of the full web. Therefore. bandwidth appraisal is a cardinal map that is needed to supply QoS in MANETs. Bandwidth appraisal can be performed in several different web beds. as shown in Fig. 3. Fig. 3: QoS Architecture| . Type |Reserved |Hop Count | |Broadcast ID | |Destination IP Address | |Destination Sequence Number | |Source IP Address | |Source Sequence Number | |Request Time | Fig. 4. RREQ Message Format before QoS-Enabling |Type |Reserved |Hop Count | |Bandwidth Required | |Broadcast ID | |Destination IP Address | |Destination Sequence Number | |Source IP Address | |Source Sequence Number | |Request Time | Fig. 5. RREQ Message Format after QoS-Enabling In this research. I tried to better QoS with major focal point on Bandwidth parametric quantity. Fig. 4 A ; 5 shows RREQ message format before and after QoS enabling. in AODV protocol. For heightening public presentation of the basic protocol one more field named â€Å"Bandwidth Required† is added in the given RREQ format. This RREQ package is used to hive away the information of bandwidth required field A ; so used to compare it with the current demand. And. the package is forwarded to the following intermediate node merely when it does hold sufficient sum of bandwidth otherwise it is dropped amp ; so it is re-transmitted when favourable status nowadays. III. Trial Procedure A. Performance Analysis The public presentation analysis has been done on Fedora 8 as the operating system. ns 2. 34 was installed on the platform for imitating the protocols along with necessary package such as GnuPlot. which is package for plotting graphs from the hint files. N ( version 2 ) is an object oriented. distinct event driven web simulator written in C++ and Otcl. B. Basic Protocol Simulation This subdivision discusses how the AODV protocol was simulated and implemented. First the platform i. e. Fedora 8 was set up in a practical environment. Then ns2 was set up on the platform on which the above said protocols were implemented. ns2 requires a book file to be run on it. These book files are written in a linguistic communication called TCL ( Tool Command Language ) . We have make usage of shell scripting A ; Gnuplot for plotting of graphs. Some of the basic codification to compose book files is given below: †¢ ns2 simulation starts with this bid: set Ns [ new Simulator ]Making end product files ( hint files or NAM files )# Open the hint fileset file1 [ open out. tr w ]$ ns trace-all $ file1# Open the NAM hint fileset file2 [ open out. nam tungsten ]$ ns namtrace-all $ file2†¢ The expiration of the plan is done as follows:# Define a ‘finish’ processproc finish { } {planetary N file1 file2$ ns flush-trace# Close the hint filenear $ file1near $ file2# Execute NAM on the hint fileexec nam out. nam A ;issue 0}†¢ At the terminal of the ns2 plan. a â€Å"finish† process is called which specifies the clip at which the expiration should happen. e. g. $ Ns at 125. 0 â€Å"finish†Definition of a node:set n0 [ $ ns node ]Definition of a nexus:$ ns duplex-link $ n0 $ n2 10 Mb 10 MS DropTail†¢ A little plan utilizing the above bids and imitating a UDP nexus between two nodes is given below: set Ns [ new Simulator ]set nf [ open out. nam tungsten ]$ ns namtrace-all $ nfproc finish { }{planetary N n f$ ns flush-tracenear $ nfWhite House nam –a out. nam A ;issue 0}# Create two nodesset n0 [ $ ns node ]set n1 [ $ ns node ]$ ns duplex-link $ n0 $ n1 1Mb 10ms DropTail# Create a UDP agent and attach it to node n0set udp0 [ new Agent/UDP ]$ ns attach-agent $ n0 $ udp0 # Create a CBR traffic beginning and attach it to udp0 set cbr0 [ new Application/Traffic/CBR ]$ cbr0 set packetSize_ 500$ cbr0 set interval_ 0. 005$ cbr0 attach-agent $ udp0# Create a Null agent ( a traffic sink ) and attach it to node n1 set null0 [ new Agent/Null ]$ ns attach-agent $ n1 $ null0# Connect the traffic beginning with the traffic sink$ ns connect $ udp0 $ null0# Schedule events for the CBR agent$ Ns at 0. 5 â€Å" $ cbr0 start†$ Ns at 4. 5 â€Å" $ cbr0 stop†# Call the finish process after 5 seconds of simulation clip $ ns at 5. 0 â€Å"finish†# Run the simulation$ ns tally C. Performance Metrics used for Analysis The undermentioned prosodies were used for the comparing of the protocols: 1 ) Throughput: This is the effectual portion of bandwidth that the application is acquiring from the web. 2 ) Bandwidth: This signifies the part of the available capacity of an end-to-end web way that is accessible to the application or information flow. Consequently. the figure of spots that are injected into the web by the assorted flows of an application have to be adjusted consequently. 3 ) Average Packet Delay: It is mean packet bringing clip from a beginning to a finish. First for each source-destination brace. an mean hold for package bringing is computed. Then the whole mean hold is computed from each brace mean hold. 4 ) Package Delivery Ratio: It is a ratio of figure of informations packages delivered to the finish and the figure of informations packages sent by the beginning or figure of informations packages delivered over figure of informations packages generated. Number of informations packages delivered is the entire figure of received informations packages by finishs. 5 ) Network Overhead Load: It is the ratio of entire sum of operating expense caused due to command routing packages and the sum of radio bandwidth wasted to convey the packages that are dropped in other links. IV. RESULTS A ; ANALYSIS A. Traffic Environment The trials were performed on CBR traffic with 50 nodes. Packet size was set to 500 and the clip interval between reassigning the packages was set to 0. 005 MS. Bit rate was set to 1 Mbps with a Drop Tail of 10 Ms As it is non easy to make traffic simulations for such big figure of nodes manually. therefore the simulations were generated with the aid of CMU traffic generator and the scenario was generated with the aid of setdest. which are the tools preinstalled with the ns2. The field constellation was set to 500 by 500 m. Consequently. with the aid of three of the parametric quantities A ; four public presentation prosodies. 12 graphs are generated and are used for rating of AODV protocol for QoS every bit good as Non-QoS. It is clear from Fig. 6 that for informations rates above 600 kbps. the mean hold suffered by packages is really less for QAODV in comparing with AODV. For low informations rates delay suffered is about similar for both AODV and QAODV. The ground behind better public presentation of AODV is that it blocks the package at beginning itself every bit shortly as QoS standards of way is lost which consequences in less contention in common intermediate sub-paths of different flows. As shown in Fig. 7. each Pause clip. the mean package hold suffered by QAODV is about 40-60 MS less than that suffered by AODV. For both AODV and QAODV. minimal hold is achieved when intermission clip of the nodes is 6 seconds. For each value of velocity. the mean package hold suffered by QAODV is really less than that suffered by AODV. as can be seen in Fig. 8. For both AODV and QAODV. minimal hold is achieved when traveling velocity of the nodes is 4 m/s. Figure 9 shows NOL versus CBR. The operating expense of utilizing QAODV is higher than the operating expense of AODV at each information rate. The overhead values of both AODV and QAODV lessening with the addition in traffic informations rate. It is hard to explicate the ground behind immens e addition in the overhead value of QAODV when traffic informations rate is 1200kbps. Figure 10 shows NOL versus Pause Time. The operating expense of utilizing QAODV is higher than the operating expense of AODV at each intermission clip value. The overhead values of AODV are about same at different intermission clip values. It is hard to explicate the ground behind immense addition in the overhead value of QODV when intermission clip is set to 12 seconds. Fig. 6. Average Packet Delay versus CBR Fig. 7. Average Packet Delay versus Pause Time Fig. 8. Average Packet Delay versus Speed of Nodes Fig. 9. NOL versus CBR Fig. 10. NOL versus Pause Time Figure 11 shows NOL versus Speed of Nodes. The operating expense of utilizing QAODV is higher than the operating expense of AODV at each traveling velocity value. The overhead values of AODV are about same at different velocity values. Figure 12 shows Packet Delivery Ratio versus Pause Time. Here the information rate is set to 2000kbs and PDR value of QAODV is less than that of AODV at every intermission clip value. Figure 13 shows Packet Delivery Ratio versus Speed of Nodes. Here the information rate is set to 2000kbs and PDR value of QAODV is less than that of AODV at every velocity value. Fig. 11. NOL versus Speed of Nodes Fig. 12. Package Delivery Ratio versus Pause Time Fig. 13. Package Delivery Ratio versus Speed of Nodes Figure 14 shows Throughput versus CBR. At low informations rates throughput achieved by QAODV is about similar to that achieved by AODV. When the QoS ( bandwidth ) demand is high. it is hard to happen QoS fulfilling way for the flows. Therefore QAODV blocks the packages at beginning itself with consequences in lessening in the throughput at the information rates higher than 1200 kbps. Figure 15 shows Throughput versus Pause Time. Here the information rate is set to 2000kbs and QAODV’s throughput is less than AODV’s throughput. For both AODV and QAODV. Throughput achieved is highest when intermission clip is 4 seconds. Figure 16 shows Throughput versus Speed of Nodes. Here the information rate is set to 2000kbs and QAODV’s throughput is less than AODV’s throughput. For both AODV and QAODV. Throughput achieved is highest when velocity is 4 m/s. There is sudden lessening in throughput for both AODV and QAODV when velocity is 8 m/s. Throughput achieved by AODV and QAODV does non vary much for the velocity values greater than 12m/s. Fig. 14. Throughput versus CBR Fig. 15. Throughput versus Pause Time Fig. 16. Throughput versus Speed of Nodes V. CONCLUSION In this research. I presented the QoS ( Quality of Service ) enabled AODV protocol. First. I have simulated the basic protocol utilizing ns2. Then utilizing Gnuplot. the 12 graphs are generated with three changing scenarios for simulation used are 1 ) Speed of Nodes. 2 ) Traffic Rate. 3 ) Pause Time or Mobility A ; the public presentation prosodies used are 1 ) PDR. 2 ) NOL. 3 ) Average package hold. 4 ) Throughput. Then. the QoS of basic protocol is improved amp ; once more graphs are generated. Finally. the comparing of the Non-QoS and QoS-enabled protocol is carried out. The consequence shows the betterment in routing of informations from beginning to finish. By detecting the graphs generated. following points can be concluded: 1 ) Average Packet Delay is reduced in QAODV as compared to basic AODV protocol. 2 ) As we are doing usage of Hello Messages to read the bandwidth. the Network Overhead Load is increased to some extend in QAODV as compared to AODV. 3 ) Average throughput and Packet Delivery Ratio of QAODV are reasonably same as AODV Protocol. Mentions [ 1 ] Ismail Ari. Neelu Jethani. Aniruddha Rangnekar. Sushma Natarajan. â€Å"Performance analysis and comparing of Ah hoc routing protocols† . CMSC 691T. Mobile Calculating. project study May. 22. 2000 [ 2 ] Lei Chen and Wendi Heinzelman. â€Å"Network architecture to back up QoS in nomadic Ad hoc networks† . 2005. [ 3 ] Chonggun Kim. Elmurod Talipov. and Byoungchul Ahn. â€Å"A contrary AODV routing protocol in Ad hoc Mobile networks† . 2006. [ 4 ] Chonggun Kim. Elmurod Talipov. Byoungchul Ahn. â€Å"A Reverse AODV Routing Protocol in Ad hoc Mobile Networks† . EUC Workshops 2006. LNCS 4097. pp. 522 – 531. 2006.  © IFIP International Federation for Information Processing 2006 [ 5 ] Habib-ur Rehman. Lars Wolf. â€Å"Performance sweetening in AODV with handiness prediction† . Institute of Operating Systems and Computer Networks ( IBR ) . Technische Universitat at Braunschweig. Germany. 1-4244-1455-5/07 ©2007 IEEE [ 6 ] Chad Bohannan. Li Zh ang. Jian Tang. Richard S. Wolff. Shen Wan. Neeraj Gurdasani and Doug Galarus. â€Å"QoS enhancement and public presentation rating of Ad-hoc routing protocols for rural public safety† . 2007. [ 7 ] E. Ahvar. and M. Fathy. â€Å"Performance rating of routing protocols for high denseness Ad hoc webs based on Qos by GlomoSim simulator† . 2007. [ 8 ] Hang Shen. Guangwei Bai. Junyuan Wang. Yong Jin. Jinjing Tao. â€Å"Performance survey of a cross-layer based multipath routing protocol for IEEE 802. 11e nomadic Ad hoc networks† . I. J. Communications. Network and System Sciences. 2008. 4. 285-385. [ 9 ] Natalia Vassileva. Francisco Barcelo-Arroyo. â€Å"A study of routing protocols for energy constrained Ad hoc radio networks† . 2008. [ 10 ] R. Asokan. A. M. Natarajan. â€Å"Performance rating of energy and hold cognizant Quality of service ( QoS ) routing protocols in nomadic Ad hoc networks† . 2008. [ 11 ] Kumar Manoj. Parmanand. S. C. Sharma A ; S. P. Singh. â€Å"Performance of QoS parametric quantity in radio Ad hoc web ( IEEE 802. 11b ) † . 2009. [ 12 ] Chad Bohannan. Li Zhang. Jian Tang. Richard S. Wolff. Shen Wan. Neeraj Gurdasani. Doug Galarus. â€Å"QoS enhancement and public presentation rating of Ad hoc routingprotocols for rural public safety† . equal reviewed at the way of IEEE Communications Society capable affair experts for publication in the IEEE ICC 2009 proceedings. [ 13 ] Yu-Doo Kim. Il-Young Moon. Sung-Joon Cho. â€Å"A comparing of improved AODV routing protocol based on IEEE 802. 11 and IEEE802. 15. 4† . Journal of Engineering Science and Technology Vol. 4. No. 2 ( 2009 ) 132 – 141 © School of Engineering. Taylor’s University College. [ 14 ] Sanjay Jamwal and Prof. M. Asger. â€Å"A Survey of QoS in Mobile Ad-Hoc Networks† . Proceedings of the 3rd National Conference ; INDIACom-2009 Computing For Nation Development. February 26 – 27. 2009 [ 15 ] Alekha Ku mar Mishra. Bibhu Dutta Sahoo. â€Å"A modified Adaptive-SAODV paradigm for public presentation sweetening in MANET† . International Journal of Computer Applications in Engineering Technology And Sciences ( IJ-CA-ETS ) . ISSN: 0974-3596 April’09–September’09 Volume 1: Issue 2 Page: 443. [ 16 ] HuiYao Zhang. Marek E. Bialkowski. Garry A. Einicke. and John Homer. â€Å"An extended AODV protocol for VoIP application in nomadic Ad hoc network† . ECTI minutess on Electrical Eng. . Electronicss and Communications VOL. 7. NO. 2 August 2009. [ 17 ] Kumar Manoj. Parmanand. S. C. Sharma A ; S. P. Singh. â€Å"Performance of QoS Parameter in Wireless Ad hoc Network ( IEEE 802. 11b ) † . Proceedings of the World Congress on Engineering and Computer Science 2009 Vol I WCECS 2009. October 20-22. 2009. San Francisco. USA [ 18 ] Zamree Che-Aron. Wajdi Al-Khateeb. Farhat Anwar. â€Å"The enhanced fault-tolerance mechanism of AODV routing protocol for radio detector network† . IJCSNS International Journal of Computer Science and Network Security. VOL. 10 No. 6. June 2010 [ 19 ] S. Sridhar. R. Baskaran. â€Å"A study on QoS based routing protocols for MANET† . International Journal of Computer Applications ( 0975 – 8887 ) . Volume 8– No. 3. October 2010. [ 20 ] S. Soundararajan. R. S. Bhuvaneswaran. â€Å"Multipath routing anchor for bettering QoS in nomadic Ad hoc networks† . European Journal of Scientific Research ISSN 1450-216X Vol. 53 No. 2 ( 2011 ) . pp. 222-230 [ 21 ] V. Dilip Kumar. Prof. Ilanchezhipandian. â€Å"Enhancement of AODV routing protocol to supply QoS to MANET† . Proceedings of National Conference on Emerging Trends in Computer Science â€Å"NCETCS 2011† . [ 22 ] V. Bharathi and T. Poongkuzhali. â€Å"A public presentation sweetening of an optimized power reactive routing† .  ©gopalax -International Journal of Technology And Engineering System ( IJTES ) : Jan à ¢â‚¬â€œ March 2011- Vol2. No1 based on AODV Protocol for Mobile AD-HOC Network [ 23 ] S. Thirumurugan. â€Å"C-AODV:Routing protocol for Tunnel’s network† . ISSN: 2229-4333 ( Print ) ISSN:0976-8491 IJCST Vol. 2. Iss ue 1. March 2011 [ 24 ] Ruchita Goyal. Divyanshu and Manoj Mishra. â€Å"Quality of service purveying in Manet utilizing a cross-layer attack for routing† . International Journal of Computer Networks A ; Communications ( IJCNC ) Vol. 3. No. 3. May 2011. [ 25 ] Hatem M. Hamad. Maaly A. Hassan. â€Å"Enhanced multi-radio AODV in intercrossed radio mesh networks† . Journal of Media and Communication Studies Vol. 3 ( 5 ) . pp. 188-197. May 2011. [ 26 ] Shahram Jamali. Bita Safarzadeh and Hamed Alimohammadi. â€Å"SQR-AODV: A stable QoS-aware dependable on-demand distance vector routing protocol for nomadic Ad hoc networks† . Scientific Research and Essays Vol. 6 ( 14 ) . pp. 3015-3026. 18 July. 2011. [ 27 ] Teena Arora1. Parminder Singh2 a nd Sandeep Singh Kang. Performance Evaluation and Improving Bandwidth Utilization of AODV Protocol by Finding Hidden Terminals in Wireless Networks† . International Journal of Computer Science and Telecommunications [ Volume 2. Issue 6. September 2011 ] . [ 28 ] Dr D Srinivas Rao. Jooby Ann Thomas. Sake Pothalaiah â€Å"QoS through Power Control in MANETs utilizing AODV Protocol† . International Journal of Computer Applications ( 0975–8887 ) Volume 31– No. 9. October 2011 [ 29 ] Heng Luo. â€Å"A best attempt QoS support routing in nomadic Ad hoc networks† . PhD thesis. . University of Edinburgh. December. 2011 [ 30 ] Pallavi Sharma. Vijay Singh Rathore. â€Å"Regulating bandwidth flow appraisal and control for wired/wireless networks† . International Journal of Soft Computing and Engineering ( IJSCE ) ISSN: 2231-2307. Volume-1. Issue-6. January 2012 [ 31 ] P. Arivubrakan. V. R. Sarma Dhulipala. â€Å"QoS Enhancement by changing Transmission Range in Wireless Ad-hoc Networks† . International Journal of Computer Applications ( 0975 – 8887 ) . Volume 37– No. 9. January 2012. [ 32 ] P. Priya Naidu1 and Meenu Chawla. â€Å"Extended Ad hoc on demand distance vector local fix test for MANET† . International Journal of Wireless A ; Mobile Networks ( IJWMN ) Vol. 4. No. 2. April 2012 [ 33 ] M. Pushpavalli. T. Sindhu. R. Nithya Rubini. A. M. Natarajan. â€Å"QoS public presentation analysis of MANET routing protocol with bandwidth estimation† . International Conference on Computing and Control Engineering ( ICCCE 2012 ) . 12 A ; 13 April. 2012. [ 34 ] Gaurav Sharma. Vaishali Sahu. Prashant Kumar Maurya. Mahendra. â€Å"Improved multicast AODV: A review† . International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications ( IJERA ) ISSN: 2248-9622 Vol. 2. Issue 3. May-Jun 2012. pp. 1082-1087

Zora Hurson’s ‘Sweet’ and Andre Dubus ‘Killing’ an Example of the Topic Literature Essays by

Zora Hurson’s ‘Sweet’ and Andre Dubus ‘Killing’ Zora Hurson's 'Sweet' and Andre Dubus ' Killing' presents similar yet also contrasting stories of love and hatred and commitment. Hurson's Sweet' talks about a marriage relationship in which the love that once felt by the couple had faded and all that was left were infidelity, and unfairness on the part of the man. Hurson's essay depicts a woman struggle in living with a husband who does not really love his wife. In a sense, the story brings to light the feelings of both the man and the wife in view of their unmet desire. Need essay sample on "Zora Hursons Sweet and Andre Dubus Killing" topic? We will write a custom essay sample specifically for you Proceed Sykes Jones, the husband of Delia seemed to distaste her already due to her size and focus his attention on other women who were more in shape, or in other words, sexier women. Ironically, despite his ruddiness, he remains with her for the past fifteen years which seem to suggest that it was only the physical size of Delia that he cannot be swallowed or perhaps there was something else. Delia was the kind of a hardworking woman. People Frequently Tell EssayLab writers: Who wants to write paper for me? Help With Essay Writing. Here Is Your Life Vest! Collage Papers For Sale Professional Writers For Hire Write My Assignment Buy Essays Cheap She was godly and attends church every Sunday despite her much work. Obviously, she is committed to her marriage with Sykes. Here it seemed that children as in the case of Dubus' "Killing" play an important role. Unfortunately, the couple did not have any children. Dubus 'Killing' on the other hand is about the murder of two men involving two innocent men and a murderer. The first murder happened right in the home of a loving father whose son Frank was shot dead by an intruder named Richard Strout. Though sentenced to jail, yet Strout was out on a bail. Frank's family could not afford to take that the cold blooded killer of their son was out. Matt himself worried about his wife's concern convinced that he needed to take some action on the situation. In the end, Both stories prove that between life and death, the family relationship still holds between them despite any thing that may have happened both good and bad. There seemed to be not many similarities between the two essays except for two things: First, both essay concerns about the family relationship. Hurson's "Sweet" features a black couple married for fifteen years whose marriage was already corrupted by infidelity, disloyalty, rudeness, and the lack of real love on the part of the man. Their relationship was characterized by coldness and insensibilities on the situation and need of the wife. From all angle, their relationship as husband and wife was a dead one except the formality that they are legally married. Nevertheless, the couple lived together under the same roof. Dubus "Killing" on the other hand presents a typical murder case involving two accounts of murder with the murderer himself killed. Matt Fowler was a very loving father, responsible husband, and successful businessman. For some reason, however, his son Frank was shot dead inside their own house by Richard Strout who barged into their house on a single purpose of killing Frank. Anyhow, Matt's family was a picture of a happy one and is strongly bonded by closeness, respect, and love for each member. The second similarity is that both families were into trouble. Sykes and Delia's married life was troublesome as they frequently engaged in heated conversation. Sykes has involved with other women the reason he lost his feelings and appetites for his wife. Frank on the other was also involved with a woman who was still in the process of having a divorce with her husband. Both men were involved in a complicated relationship and both had died as a result of their own iniquity. There were quite a number of the contrasting situation between the Novels. First, Zora Hurson's "Sweet" was based on the context of a poor black family who was earning a living by washing clothes of others. In contrast with the "Killing," The novel was set in the context of a middle-class white family. The Fowler had their own business and had a circle of friends who were professionals and business people. In other words, the most obvious contrast is economics as well as racial differences. Second, Hurson depicts in her novel that blacks were more committed to the relationship and that they can afford to stick to that relationship regardless of the nature of the relations between them. That is, they can maintain their composure to avoid harming each other. In the Killing, however, Dubus depicted a scenario wherein the limits of human temperament can lead to murdering persons. Frank's complicated relations with the woman who is yet to process her divorce with the husband got him in trouble. Although the Fowlers themselves had good family relations Frank's affair with a married woman caused him his death. The third contrast between the "Sweet" and the "Killing" is Hurson's novel depicts a woman's struggle having married to the husband with an undesirable character. Her life was a constant struggle both to earn a living and to be able to persevere her husband's oppression on her, as she was often misunderstood or perhaps her feelings was deliberately ignored and belittled. In contrast to this, Dubus features a middle-class family who was supportive of their children. Matt was both a loving husband to his wife and father to his four children. Here Dubus establishes a positive notion of a white married couple. This is certainly a direct contrast as it seemed that Zora N. Hurson has created a concept that black American families are usually poor and quarrelsome. The fourth contrast is that Hurson seemed to have ignored some reality. First, the couple in Hurson's "Sweet" was childless and maybe this explains something about the husband and his character's role. In contrast, Frank's family in Dubus Killing was more mature, efficient and better organized. They have four children who were mostly professional. In a real sense, it seemed that it was reversed. Normally, poor families are the ones that have many children, while middle-class families often have one or two children. Whatever is the case, the two essays reflected that children play a great role towards a happy relationship. Overall similarities and differences of the two essays depend on the context of the author's focus. In the case of Hurson, one could see that her novel focuses on the woman struggle under a husband who deliberately ignores her own feelings, while Dubus focus on the murder cases involving a father and a son and the murderer. The two novels provided a new approach towards understanding a family relationship. Obviously, Hurson intended to feature a black couple whose relations was severed by the husband's rudeness, infidelity, insensitivity, and the lack of real love. It appears that in human relationships, women had a deeper commitment and would have the tendency to endure the situation so long as her husband is on her side. The case in Matt Fowler who shot dead the murderer proves that at the end of the day, both stories prove that between life and death, the family relationship still holds between them despite any thing that may have happened both good and bad." References Dubus, Andre Finding a girl in America USA: David Godine Publisher, 1980

The Gospel Of Lune Essays - Christian Soteriology,

The Gospel Of Lune In the Gospel According to Luke and the Acts of the Apostles, repentance and forgiveness are discussed explicitly. These acts serve as our attempt to become better Christians. Only in repenting our sins and working for their forgiveness are we able to embrace the workings of God. Additionally, it is only through the word of Jesus and the power of the Holy Spirit, and the grace of God, that man is forgiven. But, if one does not repent and change one's ways, receiving God's forgiveness is impossible. In explaining these aspects of Christian faith, they also help to explain the static relationship between God and his people in the earlier Books of Genesis, Exodus and Job. Consequently, the New Testament gives a new perspective on these ideas since God had sent His only Son to earth to be our Savior. With the teachings of Christ as the basis for our actions, we know to forgive others and to ask God for His Grace. Luke's Gospel contains many of Jesus' most famous parables. Through them, He teaches us the values of redemption and forgiveness. But, Luke stresses that both redemption and forgiveness through Jesus is universal. Anyone who believes in Him can be saved. The parables of the lost sheep, the lost coin and the Prodigal Son are representative of true acts of forgiveness and repentance. All three parables deal with The parable of the lost sheep is an example of God's desire to bring back one repentant man. As the Shepard celebrates the recovery of one wayward sheep from his flock, so too does the Kingdom of God, ?there will be more joy in heaven over one sinner who repents than over ninety-nine righteous people who need no repentance? (Luke 15:7). Although only one sheep out of one hundred had been lost, the desire to bring it back is enough to leave the other sheep alone to search for the lost one. Similarly, the parable of the lost coin is symbolic of the same idea. But the idea of searching through the house using a lighted candle is important. The lighted candle is also another symbol of Christianity, symbolizing the light of God's knowledge. During Easter, lighted candles also represent the coming of Christ. Here, as the woman uses the candle to search for the coin, so too does the sinner need the word of God to be redeemed. The celebration in heaven over the recovery of one sinner is similar to that of the previous parable and the idea is thoroughly reinforced, there is joy before the angels of God over one sinner who repents? (Luke 15:10). Likewise does The greatest parable of repentance and forgiveness is that of the Prodigal Son. Leaving his family for a life of pleasure, the son returns penniless, expecting the life of a servant as punishment for his wantonness. Speaking to his father and expressing his dire straits, the son returns, ?Father, I have sinned against heaven and before you; I am no longer worthy to be called your son? (Luke 15:21). Regardless of what had happened in the past, his father welcomes him back with open arms. His other son, who had remained loyal and hard-working all of his life, expressed anger at his father's quickly forgiving his brother. But as seen before, the return of one wayward soul is more joyous than the continuation of a good life. In the father's own words to his ?loyal? son: Son, you are always with me, and all that is mine is yours. It was fitting to make merry and glad, for this your brother was dead, and is alive; he was lost, and is found. (Luke 15:31) Similar ideas are found within the Acts of the Apostles, but in this book, the focus broadens to the forgiveness and repentance of Gentiles. The prerequisites for salvation are expanded to the Gentiles. St. Peter understands the need to include Gentiles within the new Church, ?Truly I perceive that God shows no partiality, but in every nation any one who fears him and does what is right is acceptable to him? (Acts 10:34). It is the active work of the disciples who bring people

the holocaust and national soc essays

the holocaust and national soc essays Upon examining the excerpts from the works of Christopher Brownings Ordinary Men: Reserve Police Battalion 101 and the final solution in Poland; and Omer Bartovs Murder in our Midst: the Holocaust, Industrial killing, and Modernity; one develops an understanding of the responsibilities the average German soldier had on the Holocaust. Christopher Browning argues that that the average German soldier did not willingly participate in killing of Jews. Browning believes that Nazi propaganda was the machine that drove Nazism and coerced German civilians into killing the Jews. Bartovs arguments on the Holocaust are more of a theoretical depiction of both the culmination of science and law. He believes the Holocaust and National Socialism were ever-present in the organized states of the industrialized western society. We have developed ambivalence towards war and violence. All that is needed in the modernity of war is two crucial elements: a scientific stamp and legalistic sanction. Christopher Browning states in his book, Ordinary Men: Reserve Police Battalion 101 and the Final Solution in Poland, that the majority of the German military did not willingly participate in the mass genocide of the Jews. As pointed out by Browning, Even twenty or twenty-five years later those who did quit shooting along the way overwhelmingly cited sheer physical revulsion against what they were doing as the prime motive but did not express any ethical or political principles behind this revulsion. Browning continues to follow course in that the Germans were blindly following orders. Most of the blame should come at those who gave the orders, and not the German military and civilians who executed these heinous crimes. Bartov elects to explain the governing body behind Nazism and its social uprising into the Hitler State. The emergence and implementation of industrial killing was a crucial component in the...

SZT Task 4 Disaster in Franklin County Research Paper

SZT Task 4 Disaster in Franklin County - Research Paper Example This was significant because they had to be coordinated and encouraging to tackle all cultural, social, health and material issues emerging in the community every now and then. The health workers in the local vicinity synchronized transportation, communal services, public utilities, unpaid helpers, salvage works as well as support from outside members. The public health nurse had roles to play too. They were to communicate efficiently working in partnership with the whole of health units and other groups so as, to systematize resources that were essential throughout the disaster. In the simulation, they went door to door carrying out interviews of the community members. From these interviews, it was possible to obtain safety status as well as the health of the community. During the disaster, there are several people who also participated in ensuring that the rescue mission was success. For instance, the incident commander on the ground ensured that all the nurses were posted in the r ight position. At the same time, they saw to it that the head count of all the victims were in order. The logistic chief also played a part during the disaster. It was his mandate to ensure that all the required materials and machinery were in order. This step was taken to determine the availability of food, shelter and medicine for the victims. The financial chief on the ground made things easy for the victims and doctors in ensuring that he okayed the government ad the banks to avail money that was needed to be used. The public health director of the region was the overall overseer of the entire rescue mission. He authorized everything that took place during the rescue. In order to react well to a disaster, an effectual succession of command is necessary. It is there to facilitate knowledge and coordination of groups of people as well as individuals caught up in the emigration and relief efforts. In the simulation, the chain of commands offered

People for Ethical Treatment of Animals Term Paper

People for Ethical Treatment of Animals - Term Paper Example It carries out various campaigns around the world to stop cruelty and ill treatment towards animals. They believe that animals deserve the rights to have their best interests taken into great consideration. Its slogan is â€Å"animals are not ours to eat, wear, experiment on, or use for entertainment.† The organization has three hundred employees and more than two million followers and supporters. PETA focuses on the four major areas where animals are subjected to suffer: In Research Laboratories In Garment Industry/Clothing Trade Entertainment Industry Factory Farms In addition, it deals with issues of killing animals in a cruel manner, the suffering of domestic animals, and the killing of birds and pests. Ingrid Newkirk states, â€Å"When it comes to feelings like hunger, pain, and thirst, a rat is a pig is a dog is a boy† (p. 4). In general, animal rights demands that all the animals should be used and treated humanely. Animals can be used for various types of purpos e, but the humane treatment and duty of care lies mainly with the human being. Like the animal rights theory, it upholds that we have no ethical explanation for using nonhuman animals for human purposes. The main aim of animal rights is to get rid of the use of animals. PETA encourages veganism, a philosophy of rights of animals far more fundamental than vegetarianism. Veganism is a strict vegetarian that does not eat any animal or dairy products at all. PETA also protests in opposition to animal testing of various types of cosmetics that apply to animals’ skin or eyes to test for protection and toxicity. Many companies such as, Johnson and Johnson, Proctor & Gamble, and L’Oreal all use animal testing for their products. Through PETA’s ongoing protests, many companies have stopped the use of animals for experimentation. Method: This organization has helped diminish the cruelty of animals through public education, cruelty investigations, research, animal rescue, special events, celebrity involvement, and protest campaigns. PETA also uses various celebrities for most of their assertive promotion and campaign activity with the intention to grab their audiences’ attention. Such celebrities are, Drew Barrymore, Pamela Anderson, Stella McCartney, Alicia Silverstone, Khloe Kardashian, and Alec Baldwin. PETA activists work hard for the rights of the animals. They educate the people about the sufferings of the animals. They make sure that people know how animals are treated in research laboratories, farming enterprises, and other areas where they are used. If they find any animal being subjected to cruelty, they figure out a plan to rescue it or grab attention. PETA adapts different schemes for its publicity. One could say that its publicity pattern has played a major role in getting such a huge response from people all around the world. Their slogans are thought provoking. â€Å"Meat is murder,† â€Å"I’d rather go naked than wear fur† are some of the slogan that have grabbed a lot of public attention. The organization aims at the eradication of cruelty to animals. They known all the tactics needed in pulling the crowd, some of which include the use of short phrases, eye-catching images, and banners. They would discuss some issues related to animals in their chat show, organize debates and also try to involve as many people as possible. PETA

Is the U.S. Seeking to Contain Russia Research Paper - 2

Is the U.S. Seeking to Contain Russia - Research Paper Example Main Russian authorities gave a joint statement and said that both the countries are now looking to start a collaborative venture against the terrorist nuclear states in order to ensure the safety of their nations. President Obama also showed commitment to work for the U.S. Senate ratification of the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty. Both countries are also working for usage of nuclear energy in the positive ways and prolific nuclear usage treaty has been signed and there are many other projects which have been started which were ceased by the former presence of America due to the August 2008 Russia-Georgia conflict (Nuclear Energy Today, 82). Many Defense analysts are of the view that US is seeking to contain Russia and the ballistic missiles in South Korea which are covering the whole DPRK and can hit up to 800 kilometers is a clear sign for that. There has been no use of these missiles in that region other than targeting Russia and China and the long-term communist avenge is taking new turns (Globalresearch, 2013). Military experts are also getting hints from the pro-NATO policies of Russia that the US has ceased the policy to contain Russia because it is no more the war of systems now as the liberal democracy has made its impact and Russians seem to accept this point and are looking forward to the peaceful coexistence. The new threat which is said as political Islam has been regarded by them as the main threat to both US and Russia. (English Pravda, 2013) In a combined meeting and conference with Afghan President in August 2008, Russian President Medvedev said that Russia is looking to start new terms and relationships with Afghanistan because both the countries have been a victim of terrorism in the past and now is the time for the peaceful way ahead.

Types Of Computer Typology Computer Science Essay

Types Of Computer Typology Computer Science Essay Computers that function alone without a connect to another computer called a stand-alone. Network is a way of connecting one computer to another computer using the cable and network card, and controlled through a network operating system. The user can exchange data or programs, and to use the data or programs together in the same time. If one computer to crash, its work could be taken over by another computer. Network topology refers to how computers are connected in the mapping. Network topology is divided into two types physical topology and logical topology. Physical topology of a network refers to configuration available on cable, computers and other peripherals. Logical topology is also the method used to transfer information or information on a computer maintained between one other computers in the workstation. Here are there some types of topologies which are Bus network, Star network, Ring network and Tree network. MAIN BODY  ¿Ã‚ ½Network topology is the layout pattern of interconnections of the various elements links, nodes, etc.of a computer network.Network topologies may be physical or logical. Physical topology means the physical design of a network including the devices, location and cable installation ¿Ã‚ ½ [2]. Bus topology, also known as Ethernet using a line length in which each node in relation to that. ¿Ã‚ ½ A bus topology uses a linear segment of cable to connect all network devices. Devices typically connect to the bus the cable through T-connectors ¿Ã‚ ½ [4].Data will be sent by each node in the hope that it does not collide with data transmitted from other nodes. If it happens, the node will try again until successful. The weakness of this bus topology in terms of maintenance. It is quite difficult to maintain because the connection is in serial form. If something went wrong on any line at any node, it will cause the entire system will not work. In addition to accurately detect nod al points or damaged. Each node can be connected to the network and can also be removed at any time without affecting the whole system directly. Furthermore, if one node does not work it would not affect other computer networks. Another advantage is there in this topology is that it uses a single cable and requires no additional hardware for establishing networks. But it does not require a very high cost for maintenance purposes. Excess computer or other devices are easily connected to the main cable. Requires a smaller quantity of cable than the star topology. The disadvantages of this topology are the entire network can not function if there are problems with the main cable. Finish line or device terminators are required on both ends of the cable backbone. It is difficult to detect if the entire network does not work. Not suitable if only the topology is only within a building. Star topology is a network system in which all the computers or other devices may be connected to a central distribution system known as the Hub or Switch. Hub or Switch is responsible for managing the computer network. All messages or data that is sent to a central control hub for avoid collisions from happening. There are two operations that used by the hub or switch that is operating broadcast and the shift operation switching. The distribution operations, hub or switch will make the transmission of data received from one station to all the routes connecting them. In the transition operation, the hub or switch will store the data received and sent data via the receiving station route. Each node can be connected to the network and can also be removed at any time without affecting the whole system of directly. Furthermore, if one node does not work, it also will not affect other computer networks. Any damage to the connection between the hub nodes will not affect the overall system, but if the damage occurred at the hub, the entire system will also be affected. The main drawback of this topology is that it requires a fairly high cost in view of all systems connected to it computers, scanners, printers, and many more requires a separate cable. Advantages of star topology are the installation and connection tools. The process of installing or removing any additional devices that are involved will not interfere with the network system. Any damage to the network system can be detected more easily and quickly. The disadvantages of this topology is requires more cable length than a linear bus topology. If the hub is damaged, all the nodes can not function in the network system. Higher costs when compared to linear bus topology Ring topology or a ring connecting all nodes such as a circular chain ring. Messages or data to be transferred in order according to the same route in the same ring. Each data node will be checked by delivery location. If not equal to the node through which it passes, it will be submitted to the next node and this will continue until the delivery address the same node strike. Since the data is transferred by the same route in the sequence, the possibility for data breaches seem to be similar to the network and can also be removed at any time without affecting the whole system of directly. But one problem is that if one node fails, the whole network system may be similarly affected. The composition of the nodes in this topology is almost the same physically as the star topology, logically is just a ring-shaped. The attachment is required in this topology is called Multi Station Access Unit (MSAU). MSAU is mounted in a ring-shaped network where it is more than one unit. If only one uni t only used the physical topology is similar to the star connection. The advantages of this topology are cable fault are easily located making trouble shooting easier. Ring networks are moderately easy to install. The disadvantages are expansion to the network can cause network disruption. A single break in the cable can disrupt three entire networks. Among all the network topology we can find that the tree topology is a combination of bus and Star Topology. The tree like structure allows you to have multiple servers in the network and you can branch network in many ways. This is especially useful for colleges, universities and schools so that each branch to identify the relevant system within their own network and not connected to a large network in several ways. Tree structure most appropriate when the network is widespread and highly divided into many branches. As with other topologies, tree topologies have advantages and disadvantages. Tree networks may not be suitable to small networks and cable may be a waste to use it for a small network. Tree Topology has some limitations and the limitations of the configuration should be appropriate. The advantages of this topology are Tree topology is supported by many vendors and even advertising network hardware vendor. Point A to point connections is possible with the Tree Networks. All computers have access to their network larger and more immediate. The best topology for the branch network. Tree Topology Limitations in a long-range network topology depends on the type of cable being used. Tree Network Topology is completely dependent on the stem, which is the main backbone of the network. If that fails then the entire network will fail because the network topology is difficult to provide a large tree and can get complicated after a certain point. This tree topology to follow a hierarchical pattern in which each stage is connected to the next higher level in symmetrical patterns. Each level in the hierarchy to follow a certain pattern in the connecting node. As the top level may be only one node or two nodes below the level of the hierarchy and probably a few more points to work on point to point connectivity, and a third level also has a pattern of asymmetric node to node and each of these levels are associated with root level in the hierarchy . Think of tree branches in various directions and all the branches and trunk of the tree roots need to survive. A tree structured network is very similar to this and that is called the Topology Tree. The signal being sent by the root node is received by all nodes at the same time. This improves the efficiency of all network functions. Network topology tree can be updated easily work and theres no limit to how much can be renewed. Additional root node can be added and they can be interlinked in a single network. CONCLUSION In the field of information technology, network is a series of points or nodes interconnected by communication paths. Networks can link with other networks and contain subnetworks.The most common topology or general configurations of networks include bus, star, ring, symbolic, and network topologies. It can also be characterized by networks in terms of spatial distance and local area networks (LANs), metropolitan area networks (MAN) and wide area networks (WANs). Network systems and network architecture, by whether it carries voice, data, or both types of signals; that could be that those who use the network public or private, by the nature of the usual links dial-up or switch, or a custom no switched, or virtual connections and the types of physical links for example, fiber optic and coaxial cables, open and twisted pair. Phone networks and large networks using the infrastructure such as the Internet have sharing and exchange arrangements with other companies so as to create larger networks

Belk

Possessions and the Extended Self RUSSELL W. BELK* Our possessions are a major contributor to and reflection of our identities. A variety of evidence is presented supporting this simple and compelling premise. Related streans of research are identified and drawn upon in devetopJng this concept and implications are derived for consumer behavior. Because the construct of exterxJed self involves consumer behavior rather than buyer behavior. It apjpears to be a much richer construct than previous formulations positing a relationship between self-concept and consumer brand choice.Hollow hands clasp ludicrous possessions because they are links in the chain of life If it breaks, they are truly losL—Dichlsr 964 W e cannot hope to understand consumer behavior without first gaining some understanding of ihe meanings that consumers attach to possessions. .†¢ key to understanding what possessions mean is recognizing thai, knowingly or unknowingly, intentionally or unintentionally, w e regard our possessions as parts of ourselves. As Tuan argues, â€Å"Our fragile sense of self needs support, and this we get by having and possessing things because, to a large degree, we are what we have and possess† (1980. . 472). That we are what we have (e. g.. Van Estcrick 1986; Feirsiein 1986; Rosenbaum 1972) is perhaps the most basic and powerful faci of consumer behavior. The premise that we regard our possessions as parts of ourselves is not new. William James (1890, pp. 291-292), who laid the foundations for modern conceptions ofself, he! d that: a man's Self is the sum total of all that he CAN call his, not only his body and his psychic powers, but his clothes and his house, his wife and children, his ancestors and friends, his reputation and works, his Jands, and yacht and bank-account.All these things give him the same emotions. If they wax and prosper, he feels triumphant; if they dwindle and die away, he feels cast down,—not necessarily in the same deg ree for each thing, but in much the same way for all. ‘ If we define possessions as things we call ours, James was saying that we are the sum of our possessions. The purpose of this article is to examine the relationship between possessions and sense of self. It is based not only on the premise that this relationship is †¢RusscK W. Belk is the N. EJdoa Tanner Professor of Business Administration.Graduate School of Business, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84060. The author wishes to thank Melanie WaUendorf, Floyd Rudmin. and Grant McCracken for their commenis on an earlier version of this anicle. of imponance to understanding consumer behavior, but also on the premise that understanding the extended self wi]] help us learn how consumer behavior contributes to our broader existence as human beings (Belk ! 987a). The first section considers various evidences that possessions are an important component of sense of self.The most direct form of evidence is found in the nature of self-perceptions. Additional, especially striking evidence is found in the diminished sense of self when possessions are unintentionally lost or stolen. More evidence ofthe role of possessions in sense of self comes from anthropological studies ofthe way possessions are treated ritually and after death. Because extended self is such a broad topic, several unreviewed areas of evidence on the extent and nature of the relationship between possessions and sense of self also are identified. In so doing, the scope ofthe present treatment is also defined.The question of what functions the extended self serves is addressed in the second section, which begins with abrief review of the basic states of our existence: having, doing, and being. These states are relevant to the question of how we define who we are. Next, the functions of possessions in human development are considered. Four stages are identified: (1) the infant distinguishes self from environment, (2) the infant disting uishes self from others, (3) possessions help adolescents and adults manage their identities, and (4) possessions help the old achieve a sense of continuity and preparation for death.Finally, the role of possessions in creating or maintaining a sense of past is considered. The third section examines several processes involved in self-extension. One process is the initial incorporation of objects into our extended selves. A number of incorporation processes are discussed, not all of which involve possession in the sense of individual ownership. A particular process of self-extension ‘James calied his text an encyclopedia of psychology and quolcs Hcrr Horwicz's Psychologische Analysen (no date or publisher given)asasourceof many of his ideas on self. 39 ? JOURNAL OF CONSUMER RESEARCH †¢ Vol. 15 †¢ September 1988 140 THE JOURNAL OF CONSUMER RESEARCH that is considered in some detail is contamination. In contamination, both good and bad aspects of objects are seen to att ach to us through physical contact or proximity. A final process theorized is the maintenance of multiple levels of the self, such as viewing our family, city, and nation to be a part of who we are. The fourth section ofthis article focuses on a number of special categories of possessions that are commonly incorporated into the sense of self.These categories are collections, money, pets, other people, and body parts. In each case, research is reviewed supporting the contention that this category' of objects is a part of the extended self and is therefore treated differently from objects not considered to be a part of self. The final section discusses implications ofthe extended self formulation for consumer research. The areas of implications outlined include gift-giving, vicarious consumption (generally through other family members), care of possessions, organ donation, product disposition, and the contribution of extended self to defining meaning in life.The latter topic elevates the focus of consumer behavior research xo a level of greater significance than satisfaction with product performance. Following the final section, the formulation ofthe extended self is reviewed briefly and conclusions are offered. EVIDENCES Possessions in Self-Perception Research The term extended self has not been applied previously to the conception of self-plus-possessions, but Rochberg-Halton (1984, p. 335) comes close: Valued material possessions. . . act as signs ofthe self that are essential n their own right for ils continued cultivation, and hence the world of meaning that we create for oursleves, and that creates our selves, extends literally into the objective surroundings. One difference in the present view is that the extended self is seen not to be limited to external objects and personal possessions, but also includes persons, places, and group possessions as well as such possessions as body parts and vital organs. The notion of extended self is a superficially masc uline and Western metaphor comprising not only that which is seen as â€Å"me† (the self), but also that which is seen as â€Å"mine. As James (1890, p. 291) notes, the two concepts are interwoven in the way we think of our selves: The Empirical Self of each of us is all that he is tempted to call by the name of me. But it is clear that between what a man calls me and what he simply calls mine the line is difficult to draw. We feel and act ahout certain things that are ours very much as we feel and act about ourselves. Our fame, our children, the work of our hands, may be as dear to us as our bodies are, and arouse the same feelings and the same acts of reprisal if attacked. And our bodies themselves, are they simply ours, or are they us?Certainly men have been ready to disown their very bodies and to regard them as mere vestures, or even as prisons of clay from which they should some day be glad to escape. Although prior theories and research on consumer self-concept (see S irgy 1982 for a review) are moderately supportive of the contention that possessions are incorporated into self-concept, this research probably considerably underestimates the extent to which this is true. One reason is that prior research methods generally attempt to find a correspondence between perceived characteristics of these objects and perceived characteristics ofthe self.But, one can hold an object like the Statue of Liberty to be a part of one's identity without having to hold a self-concept composed of characteristics attributed to this statue. Second, as argued by Belk (1984b), the focus of these studies on brand images prior to acquisition is too limited. Both nonbrand images (e. g. , cigarette smoker, wine connoisseur) and post-acquisition object bonding (e. g. , with one's pet) may contribute strongly to the sense of self. Third, as argued by Belk (1984b) and Solomon and Assael (1988), rather than a single product or brand representing all of one's selfconcept, only a omplete ensemble of consumption objects may be able to represent the diverse and possibly incongruous aspects of the total self. For all of these reasons, the present focus on extended self is substantially different than prior consumer self-concept research. For research applications within the perspective advocated here, see Belk (1987b, 1988) and Belk and Austin (1986). This more expansive view ofthe extended self can be examined in light of several prior conceptualizations and studies focusing on distal elements ofthe self.McClelland (1951) suggested that external objects become viewed as part of self when we are able to exercise power or control over them, just as we might control an arm or a leg. In the case of tools, instruments, and weapons, envisioning the basis for the extended self metaphor is easy. The greater the control we exercise, the more closely allied with self the object should become. This principle led McClelland to hypothesize the following hierarchy of most to least closely self-allied object categories: (1) me, my â€Å"free will,† (2) my body, my conscience, (3) my belongings, (4) my friends, and (5) strangers, physical universe.The predicted closer alignment of self to belongings than to friends recognizes the â€Å"free will† of people (friends) that is lacking in most belongings. Prelinger (1959) tested James's premise that possessions are viewed as parts of self and McClelland's hypothesis that control dictates the strength ofthis linkage. He had subjects sort 160 items onto a four-position (zero to three) continuum of not-self to self The items were selected so that each of eight conceptual categories was represented by 20 items. These categories and the mean â€Å"self scores for the items within them were in descending order;POSSESSIONS AND THE EXTENDED SELF 141 that the object is â€Å"me. † McCarthy (1984) concludes that such objects act as reminders and confirmers of our identities, and that our identi ties may reside in objects more than they do in individuals. Allport (1937) hypothesized that the process of gaining an identity, and in so doing gaining self-esteem, progresses from infancy by extending self via a continuously expanding set of things regarded as one's own. This hypothesis was tested by Dixon and Street (1975) who conducted an approximate replication of† Prelingers' study among 6- to 16-year-olds.They found essentially the same rank ordering of item categories regarded as â€Å"self,† but found only two categories for which this tendency changed significantly with age: other people and possessions. In both cases, older children were more likely than younger children to categorize such objects as being part of self (â€Å"you†). In a three-gene rational study of favorite possessions, Rochberg-Halton (1984, 1986; Csikszentmihalyi and Rochberg-Halton 1981) found that as we age the possessions that people cite as â€Å"special† tend increasing ly to be those that symbolize other people (e. . , gifts from people, photographs of people). Their interpretation of these findings suggests an age-related widening ofthe boundaries of self (RochbergHalton 1984, p. 352). These findings also may suggest that possessions are regarded not only as a part of self, but also as instrumental to the development of self. Other work on the role that special possessions play in easing life transitions also suggests that possessions can be instrumental to maintenance of self-concept (e. g.. McCracken 1987a). A study by Belk (1987b. 988; Belk and Austin 1986) examines the self-defining role of places, public monuments, experiences, time periods, television programs, motion pictures, and public figures, in addition to the sort of objects, persons, and traits studied in prior research. Ofthe additional extended self categories considered, places and experiences tend to be seen as most clearly a part of extended self. Added to the previously noted findings then, we may summarize the major categories of extended self as body, internal processes, ideas, and experiences, and those persons, places, and things to which one feels attached.Of these categories, the last three appear to be the most clearly extended. However, given the difficulties in separating mind and body in philosophies and psychologies of tbe self (e. g. , Campbell 1984; Englehardt 1973; Tuner 1984), objects in all of these categories will be treated as potential parts ofthe extended self. In conversations in English (although less true in some other languages such as Japanese), ii is clear that some objects in the former categories are treated as both a part of extended self and a part of essential unextended self.For instance, saying I have a dark tan or my body is tan (possessive and extended uses) is more usual than saying I am a tan body (a nonpossessive and an unextended usage). However, saying I am 1. Body parts (e. g. , the skin, the genital organs), 2. 9 8; 2. Psychological or intraorganismic processes (e. g. , the conscience, an itching on the sole of the foot), 2. 46; 3. Personal identifying characteristics and attributes (e. g. , age, occupation), 2. 22; 4. Possessions and productions (e. g. , watch, perspiration, toilet articles), 1. 7; 5. Abstract ideas (e. g. , the morals of society, the law), 1. 36; 6,. Other people (e. g. , the people in your hometown, father), 1. 10; 7. Objects within the close physical environment (e. g. , dirt on the hands, furniture in this room), 0. 64; 8. Distant physical environment (e. g. , the adjoining room, the moon), 0. 19. Although it is unfortunate that Prelinger grouped some autonomic bodily productions with possessions, these findings still support James's contention that possessions are seen as part of self.They also suggest an ordering ofthe â€Å"selfness† of these object categories that is parallel to the hierarchy suggested by McClelland. To test McClelland's control hypothesis mo re directly. Prelinger had five judges separate the 160 items into three groups: those that are predominantly under the control of people, those that primarily control or affcci people, and those that are predominantly neutral in both regards. The first two categories both received high mean â€Å"self scores (over 1. 8) from subjects, while the neutral items clearly received â€Å"non-self scores (mean less than 0. ). These findings suggest that besides control over objects, control by objects may also contribute to an item being viewed as part of self. That is, we may impose our identities on possessions and possessions may impose their identities on us. Interestingly, control also has been suggested to be the critical determinant of feelings of possession (Furby l978;Tuan 1984). If both hypotheses are correct, the more we believe we possess or are possessed by an object, the more a part of self it becomes.It is telling that the categories of extended self just noted correspond quite closely to the areas in which Ellis (1985, pp. 115-117) found evidence of human possessiveness (no hierarchical ordering was reported): (1) one's body, (2) personal space, (3) ingestibles, (4) territory, (5) domicile, (6) copulatory partners, (7) offspring, (8) friends, (9) tools, and (10) objects of aesthetic appeal, play and amusement, pets and mementos. Nuttin (1987) finds that even the tetters in our names are viewed possessively. Apparently, in claiming that something is â€Å"mine,† we also come to believe 42 THE JOURNAL OF CONSUMER RESEARCH tired (unextended) is more common than saying my body is tired (extended). Even greater complications in making distinctions between extended and unextended selves are found with asomatognostics who cannot apprehend the existence of parts of their bodies (Litwinski 1956; Sacks 1985), amputees who develop phantom limbs (Plugge 1970), and recent treatments of beliefs as possessions (Abelson 1986; Abelson and Prentice f'orthcomin g). From the present perspective, the issue is an empirically resolvable one that depends upon perceptions.For instance, Belk and Austin (1986) found the following mean scores for various body parts on a four-point scale of â€Å"selfness,† where four is the highest possible score: eyes 3. 5, hair 3. 2, heart 3. 1, legs 3. 1, hands 3. 1, fingers 3. 0, genitals 3. 0, skin 3. 0, nose 2. 7, knees 2. 7, chin 2. 6, kidneys 2. 6, liver 2. 6, and throat 2. 5. For this sample, it seems best to conclude that none of these body parts is necessarily an inherent part of unextended self, but that eyes, hair, and heart are more likely to be treated in this way than are kidneys, liver, and throat.The study also found some evidence of sex and age differences in the incorporation of body parts into sense of self. Furthermore, it is likely that those who have undergone such elective body alterations as plastic surgery and tattooing are likely to view the affected body parts as being more a par t of self (e. g. , Sanders 1988). seen to be bestowed by the organization. The present focus would suggest that those who have less of their extended selves stripped from them may adjust more readily to such situations.Another instance in which nonvoluntary loss of possessions may bring about a diminished sense of self is when possessions are lost to theft or casualty. In the case of burglary victims, Rosenblatt, Walsh, and Jackson (1976) suggest that a process of grief and mourning may follow the discovery of theft, just as one might grieve and mourn the death of a loved one who had been a part of one's life. What is lost in both cases may be a part of self. As the college student victim of a bicycle theft accuses the unknown thief, she reveals the identity invested in the bike (Donner 1985,p. 1): It hurts to think that someone else is selling something that for me is more precious than money . . . Everyone who owns a bike has their own story that makes their bike more than just ma chinery to them. And you ripped it off. You stole a piece of my life. You didn't just steal a chunk of metal to sell. . . You walked off with my memories. The present author conducted a small-scale test of this hypothesis using data from interviews with a nonrepresentative sample of 20 burglary victims who were asked in open-ended questions to recall their initial thoughts and feelings upon discovering the loss.Following anger and rage, the most commonly reported reactions were feelings of invasion and violation. In fact, eight of the 11 females in the sample spontaneously suggested that it was as though they had been violated, polluted, or raped. There are similar reports in Maguire's (1980) study of British burglary victims, although only 12 percent ofthe females in his study suggested such a feeling. Additional confirmation ofthis feeling of personal violation is found in studies by Korosec-Serfaty (1985) and Paap (1981).There are also reports of feelings of loss of a part of sel f among victims of natural disasters. McLeod (1984) found that those who lost possessions to a mudslide went through a process of grief similar to that in losing a loved one—moving from denial to anger, to depression, and finally to acceptance (often after many months). The author joined several other researchers in conducting depth interviews with flood victims during the summer of 1986, and found that after six weeks most victims were still in the early stages of grief and often could not talk about the disaster or cried while attempting to do so.Fieldnotes from one such interview include this account: The losses that concerned (the flood victim) most were those of his record collection,. . a first edition book collection, . . . the tools that his father—the cabinet maker—had used, . , . the ceiling and paneling of the basements that he had installed with the help and advice of his father, and (upstairs), the hutch, lowboy, and stereo cabinet that his father h ad made. Loss of Possessions If possessions are viewed as part of self, it follows that an unintentional loss of possessions should be regarded as a loss or lessening of self.Goffman (1961) provides a thorough review ofthe evidence of deliberate lessening of self brought about in such institutions as mental hospitals, homes for the aged, prisons, concentration camps, military training camps, boarding schools, and monasteries. One ofthe first steps in receiving new members into these institutions is to systematically deprive them of all personal possessions including clothing, money, and even names. Their bodies may be standardized to some degree, as with military haircuts, and their behaviors and conversations may be severely restricted.They are reissued standard wardrobes and minimal possessions to aid in rebuilding a new standardized identity. The result ofthis systematic substitution of standardized â€Å"identity kits† for former possessions is an elimination of uniquenes s (Snyder and Fromkin 1981) and a corresponding and often traumatic lessening ofthe individual's sense of self. Although the new, more standardized possessions that are substituted may eventually restore some sense of self, the new self should necessarily be less unique and involve more of a shared group identity.Furthermore, the individual typically becomes a user of these new objects rather than an owner of them. Because control is restricted and the organization remains the owner, identity is POSSESSIONS AND THE EXTENDED SELF Clearly what is mourned here is a loss of seif. Similar findings were obtained in the Buffalo Creek flood (Erikson 1976). AsGeorgSimmel observes, â€Å"material property is, so to speak, an extension ofthe ego, and any interference with our property is, for this reason, felt to be a violation ofthe person† (1950, p. 322).The flood victim also illustrates how the labor ofthe individual (in this case the victim's recently deceased father) adheres in the objects produced. In this sense, the loss of possessions was also a further loss of his father's extended self that reniained in his father's creations. Besides the more direct loss of self when personal possessions are lost to theft or casualty, the vulnerability revealed in such losses may damage the sense of self derived from the attachments to home and neighborhood. Home (e. g.. Cooper 1974; Duncan 1976; Duncan and Duncan 1976) and neighborhood (e. . , Bakker and Bakker-Rabdau 1973; Gerson, Stueve, and Fischer 1977) have been suggested to be strong sources of personal identity. As with more personal possessions, home and neighborhood have been hypothesized to contribute to sense of self to the degree thai a person feels control over them (Bakker and Bakker-Rabdau 1973; Edney 1975). This may explain why Brown (1982) found that burglary victims report less sense of community, less feeling of privacy, and less pride in their house's appearance than do their nonburglarized neighbor s.The same phenomenon has been observed in those displaced by slum clearance, even when they were relocated to â€Å"better† housing (Fried 1963), In the words of Peter Marris, ‘They identify with the neighborhood: it is part ofthem, and to hear it condemned as a slum is a condemnation ofthemselves too† (1986, p. 55). Besides loss of possessions to theft or casualty, others have maintained that whenever the functions and property of individuals are taken over by institutions, such as government and schools, there is a regrettable loss of self (Dietze 1963; Wiggins 1974).Although the intent of these institutions is presumably not to lessen others' sense of selves, Wiggins (1974) suggests that there are instances in which a person's possessions are damaged with the intent of diminishing the owner. He gives as one example a cbiJd who destroys the property of a larger child or of an inviolable sibling in an effort to more effectively direct aggression at this person. Vandalism may be motivated similarly with the targels being society, those who seem to be more fortunate, or public institutions (e. . , Chester 1976; Fisher and Baron 1982). The trauma that may attend involuntary loss of possessions normally is not present in voluntary disposition of possessions. Indeed, La Branche (1973) observes that when possessions are recognized as inconsistent with our images of self, we gladly neglect or dispose of them. But, when the disposition is forced, as by economic circumstances, the parting likely brings sorrow. As one elderly respondent pawning possessions to make it through the winter reflects (Cottlel98l,p. 8): i stand in those lines with my suitcase full of things to praciicaJiy give away; 1 stand in that hock shop, and I tell myself that my entire life is being sold . . . Don't make me hock my life away, I beg you. Of course, there is a more utilitarian explanation of the feelings of resentment at the loss of possessions. In this more utilitaria n view, we merely regret the loss of valued possessions because ofthe benefits they provide rather than from any feelings of self erived from or mingled with these objects. James (1890, p. 293) challenges the sufficiency ofthis view: although it is true that a part of our depression at ihe toss of possessions is due to our feeling that we must now go without certain goods that we expected the possessions to bring in their train, yet in every case there remains, over and above this, a sense ofthe shrinkage of our personality, a partial conversion of ourselves to nothingness, which is a psychological phenomenon by itself.Extreme examples ofthis partial annihilation of self are cited by Beaglehole (1932) and Rigby and Rigby (1949) in accounts of art collectors who have gone to such great lengths as suicide to avoid facing the forced breakup of their collections. Less extreme examples are found in the simple nostalgic regret at the disposal of wornout clothing and similar items that hav e been associated with pleasant memories of one's past (e. g. , Lurie 1981, p-33; Rooney 1984, pp. 3-4).If involuntary loss of possessions causes a loss of self, one ofthe primary reactions following such loss should be an attempt at self-restoration. This phenomenon has been observed in psychoanalysis and has led to the hypothesis that, along with body loss, object loss is the fountainhead of creativity (Niederland 1967; Niederland and Sholevar 1981). Body loss refers to some real or imagined physical deformity or bodily imperfection that detracts from sense of self. Object loss normally refers to the death of a close family member, but is also used by Niederland lo refer to the traumatic loss of possessions.In body and object loss, the creation of art, craft, concept, or writing is seen as an attempt to extend the self in new ways that make up for the loss and restore the self to wholeness. That is, periods of creativity may follow the loss of one's possessions. Niederland and Sho levar (1981) also suggest that for many young American males, the automobile is a part of their extended selves and their ego ideals. This view is supported by consumer self-concept research (e. g. , Bloch 1982; Grubb and Hupp 1968; Jacobson and Kossoff 1963).The processes of creating and nurturing extended self through an automobile may be seen in customizing (personalizing) the car and in lavishing great care on its maintenance. When such a car is damaged, the owners react as if their own bodies i44 THE JOURNAL OF CONSUMER RESEARCH have been injured. Consider the sense of personal injur;' described by Bellow (1975, p. 36) after a treasured car was assaulted: Someone had done to my car as rats, I had heard, did when they raced through warehouses by the thousands and tore open sacks of flour for the hell of it. I felt a similar rip at my heart . . I had allowed the car to become an extension of my own self. . . , so that an attack on it was an attack on myself. It was a moment terri bly fertile in reactions. Furthermore, the possessors of such damaged treasures are anxious to either restore the auto to its former perfection or replace it with a more perfect substitute. These reactions reflect the desire to restore the damaged sense of (extended) seif caused by the injury to the automobile. Investing Self in Objects The idea that we make things a part of self by creating or altering them appears to be a universal human belief.Anthropologists generally agree that the maker of an object, the user of land, and the cultivator of a plant are regarded as being entitled to the product of their labor (e. g. , Herskovits 1952; Lewinski 1913). Locke (1690) made this the foundation for his views on property and government, explaining the â€Å"natural basis† for private property in three steps: (1) we own ourselves (see Wikse 1977), (2) therefore we own our labor (what we direct our bodies to do), and (3) therefore we own what we produce from our labor out of the un owned materials of nature.Csikszentmihalyi and Rochberg-Halton (1981) provide a more psychological explanation in suggesting that we invest *'psychic energy† in an object to which we have directed our efforts, time, and attention. This energy and its products are regarded as a part of self because they have grown or emerged from the self. The same principle has been suggested to apply to objects that are forcefully appropriated from others (Veblen 1898). After the development of money payment for labor, purchasing objects offers another means for investing self (in this case more symbolically) in possessions.Beaglehole (1932) reviews other anthropological evidence ofthe link between possessions and self. The almost literal incorporation of objects into self and self into objects is shown in various practices of traditional peoples. These practices include licking new possessions, burying the umbilical cord on tribal land, inserting removed foreskin beneath the bark of a person al tree, eating or taking the name of conquered enemies, burying ancestors on sacred tribal land^ and claiming ownership of new land or artifacts by touching them, naming them for a part ofthe person's body, leaving a lock of hair on them, or shedding blood on them.Another exatnple, perhaps repugnant to Western observers, is the drinking ofthe urine of Vedic priests to partake of the psychogenic properties ofthe Amanita muscaria mushroom that these priests ritually consume (Wasson 1972). Each of these practices suggests the desire to tap into the life force of nature or other people by symbolically merging with these forces. In addition, the association of people and possessions is shown in the practice of burying the dead with their possessions. This practice began at least 60,000 years ago (Maringer 1960) and perhaps more than 100,000 years ago (Leaky 198i).Alekshin (1983) compared the grave goods of men and women in Europe and found evidence that suggests women only began to expe rience inferior status in the third millennium B. C. (i. e. , the number and quality of their grave goods did not differ until then). Rathje and McGuire (1982) have performed similar analyses of grave goods ofthe Maya. That anthropologists assume that possessions tell us about their possessors is itself evidence ofthe tendency to see possessions as symbols of self.The inference process is not unlike that of police detectives who attempt to construct an identity for unknown corpses by using the corpses' possessions (Pogrebin, Poole, and Regoli 1986). In more recent traditional societies, using the clothing or possessions ofthe dead is often a taboo. Until outlawed 100 years ago in India, the wife, as â€Å"property† of a deceased husband, was expected to join him in death (Bordewich 1986). Such notions of possession surviving even death suggest a strong association between self and possessions.To the extent that other people can be viewed as possessions (this point will be pur sued in a subsequent section), mourning for dead loved ones also may be interpreted as grieving for a loss of self. The prior possessions ofthe deceased can be powerful remains of the dead person's extended self. These remains are often the focus of normal and pathological mourning (Volkan 1974). The same association is shown in sympathetic magic in which malevolence is directed at a person through their clothing, hair or nail clippings, or other belongings (Clodd 1920).Evidence ofthe power of possessions to capture the extended self is also shown in the angry destruction of objects left behind by the Shah of Iran and Ferdinand Marcos in the Philippines after they were deposed (Goldstein 1987). Contemporary consumption also shows that the feeling of identity invested in material objects can be extraordinarily high. For instance, Ames (1984, pp, 30-31) records feelings attached to a 19th century purchase of a parlor organ: Buying a prominent object like a parlor organ might initiate a new chapter in a set of Uves, not only by providing a new way to use time but also a new tool to measure time.In later years the object would serve to remind its owners ofthe day it first entered their home and of the time thai had passed since then, it would not only structure their present but also their perceptions of their own past. POSSESSIONS AND THE EXTENDED SELF They knew from experience that purchasing a major object could be a significant and momentous occasion in itself, a time of heightened positive emotions and feelings of well-being and importance . . . a major purchase would transform them in their own eyes and in the eyes of others. They would become worth more . . andacquiregreaterstatus. By so doing they would receive more respect and deference from others which would, in turn, make them feel better about themselves. Buying a parlor organ would make them something they were not before. !45 One ofthe modern equivalents ofthe parlor organ in terms of impact on exte nded self is the automobile, especially for males (e. g. , Myers 1985; Weiland 1955). The owner of an expensive Porsche describes his attachment in this way (Stein 1985, p. 30): Sometimes I test myself. We have an ancient, battered Peugeot, and I drive it for a week.It rarely breaks, and it gets great mileage. But when I pull up next to a beautiful woman, I am still the geek with the glasses. Then I get back into the Porsche. It roars and tugs to get moving, h accelerates even going uphill at 80. It leadeth trashy women . . . to make pouting looks at me at stoplights. It makes me feel like a tomcat on the prowl,. . . Nothing else in my life compares—except driving along Sunset at night in the 928, with the sodium-vapor lamps reflecting off the wine-red finish, with the air inside reeking of tan glove-leather upholstery and the . . .Blaupunkl playing the Shirelles so loud it makes my hair vibrate. And with the girls I will never see again pulling up next to me. giving the cara once-over, and looking at me as if I were a cool guy, not a worriedoverextended 40-year-old schnook writer. cal emphasis or with the focus on consumer behavior. Future research seeking a broader perspective would benefit from consulting the additional literatures in Marxism and neoMarxism, critical theory, folklore, political philosophy, environmental psychology, macromarketing, semiotics, impression management, and collective memory.The literature on property, ownership, and possession also provides a wealth of relevant material (see Rudmin, Belk, and Furby J987). The scope ofthis artical also is delimited by its predominant focus on societies that hold an individualistic concept of self As Belk (1984c) suggests, there are times and, places in world history during which the operative notion of self is more collective than individual. For a series of excellent discussions of the emergence of the individual self, see Campbell (1987), Carrithers, Collins, and Lukes (1985), and Macfar lane (1978).The present discussion addresses collective selves in a section dealing with levels ofthe self, but the primary focus is on the individual. Most ofthe present formulation also applies in instances of collective conceptualizations of the self, but collective self involves additional concepts not addressed here—for instance, group rituals for fusing a new object into collective identity. Thus, an adequate theoretical formulation of collective extended self must await further work.In the following section on the functions of extended seif, social functions of this construct largely are ignored. FUNCTIONS OF EXTENDED SELF Having, Doing, and Being Objects in our possession literally can extend self, as when a tool or weapon allows us to do things of which we would otherwise be incapable. Possessions can also symbolically extend self, as when a uniform or trophy allows us to convince ourselves (and perhaps others) that we can be a different person than we would be witho ut them. Tanay (1976) suggests that handguns represent a symbolic penis for their owners.However, Kates and Varzos (1987) challenge this interpretation and instead emphasize the real rather than symbolic power given by guns. This sense of enhancement of personal power is what made the sixgun the â€Å"equalizer† in American Western lore. Tanay's symbolic interpretation focuses on the sense of being presumably provided by such a weapon, whereas this alternative interpretation maintains that it is what one can cio with a gun that contributes to sense of self. Thus, having possessions can contribute to our capabilities for doing and being.The relationships among having, doing, and being are strong and have been most fully explored by existential psychologist and philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre. In his major work. Being and Nothingness, Sartre (1943) suggests that doing is merely a transitional As these examples suggest, the degree to which self may become extended into possessions can be great. In extreme cases, we again may note McCarthy's (1984) contention that identity sometimes may lie more in extended self than in unextended self. Relevant Perspectives and DomainThe preceding discussion has presented eclectic evidence supporting the proposition thai we regard our possessions as parts ofour selves. As this article develops a deeper theoretical understanding of this phenomenon, it will continue to draw upon a broad base of literature from psychology, consumer research, psychoanalytic theory, material and popular culture studies, feminist studies, history, medicine, anthropology, and sociology. These areas and particular studies within them deal with constructs that are useful in advancing the arguments and explanations of the following sections.A number of other areas of inquiry as well as omitted subfields from these areas just noted are potentially relevant to the study of extended self, but have been excluded either because of space considerations or be cause ofthe areas' perspectives being less compatible with the present theoreti- 146 State or a manifestation ofthe more fundamental desires 10 have or to be. Further, Sartre maintains that the only reason we want to have something is to etilarge our sense of self and that the only way we can know who we are is by observing what we have.In other words, having and being are distinct but inseparable. When an object becomes a possession, what were once self and not-self are synthesized and having and being merge. Thus, according to Sartre, possessions are all-important to knowing who we are. People seek, express, confirm, and ascertain a sense of being through what they have. Other people also affect relationships among having, doing, and being, according to Sartre. Besides others sometimes serving in an object capacity as possessions, others are an important mirror through which we see ourselves.These others first come to associate possessions and possessor and then, depending upon wh ich is known best, either come to infer the traits ofthe person from the nature of the possessions or the nature ofthe possessions from the traits of the person (Belk 1978). Belk, Bahn, and Mayer (1982) and Holman (1981) review abundant buyer behavior literature supporting this veiw. However, as Douglas and Isherwood (1979, p. 72) remind us, to think that a single item can successfully inform others about us is equivalent to thinking that a single word from a poem can convey the meaning it creates in the context ofthe poem.Sartre's view that having and being are the central modes of existence contrasts with Karl Marx's view that doing, and particularly working, is central to existence and self-worth. The problem with having, in Marx's view, is that it produces a false path to happiness through â€Å"commodity fetishism† (Marx 1978). In commodity fetishism, consumers worship goods and believe that goods have magical powers to bring happiness, provoking a pervasive and ongoing expectation that happiness lies in the next purchase or â€Å"I wouldbehappy if 1 could just have. . . â€Å"Marx suggests instead that real happiness is achieved through doing meaningful and properly rewarded work (Marx 1967). Accordingly, the perspective advocated by Marxists is that we should live to work rather than work to live (Dyke 1981). This is also the major basis for the Marxist objection to capitalism. When the capitalist owns the products of a worker's labor, the worker has been alienated from that which s/he has created. The worker has been robbed of a part of selfThe capitalist, in Marx's view, is seen not only as an exploiter of labor, but also as a thief of the worker's verj self (Marx 1964).Fromm (1976) instead advocates being as the preeminent form of existence. Like Marx, Fromm attacks â€Å"radical hedonism,† or concentration on having, as being unrewarding. He suggests that this view promotes a having mode of existence that views things, experience, ti me, and life itself as possessions to be acquired and retained. In the alternate being THE JOURNAL OF CONSUMER RESEARCH mode of existence that Fromm proposes, this orientation to have is rejected in favor of an opposing orientation to share, to give, and to sacrifice.The outcome of practicing this being mode of existence, according to Fromm, is to realize one's identity without the threat of losing it, a threat that is inherent in the having mode—for which he asks â€Å"If I am what I have and if what I have is lost, who then am I? † (1976, p. 76), The views of Sartre, Marx, and Fromm on having, doing, and being present significant questions that are not necessary or possible to resolve here. All acknowledge, however, that having possessions functions to create and to maintain a sense of self-definition and that having, doing, and being are integrally related.Mastery of Possessions and Human Development Self Versus Environment. The functions that possessions fulfill in our lives are not constant over our life spans. According to Freudian and other psychoanalytic theories (e. g. , Erikson 1959), the infant begins life being unable to distinguish self from the environment, including mother. As Ausubel, Sullivan, and Ives (1980) point out, this may be seen as a perceptual problem in distinguishing figure from ground. Others suggest that the distinction soon emerges as a result ofthe contingency and kinesthetic feedback produced by the infant's actions (Lewis and Brooks 1978; Seligman 1975).That is, as the infant's motor skills develop, those objects that can be controlled come to be seen as self and those objects that cannot be controlled come to be seen as environment. According to Isaacs (1933. p. 226), the mother's caregiving also produces the first sentiments of ownership: In Ihe case ofthe infant at the breast, lo have is literally and simply to take into oneself, into one's mouth. The nipple is only here at all when it is in my mouth, when it is (in feeling) a pan of me. And to bite and swallow athingisforlongtheonly sure way of retaining it.. . .This is the ultimate form of ownership, from which all others are derived. Even though the infant's mother provides care, nourishment, and security, her lack of perfect responsiveness to the infant's desires makes it likely that she is the first object that the infant regards as not self The separation from mother also has led others to suggest that the â€Å"security blanket† serves as a transitional object helping the child to feel the security of the mother through an object that symbolizes her (e. g. , Furby and Wilke 1982; Weisberg and Russell 1971; Winicott 1953).Bowlby (1969) suggests that such material objects often aid in identity formation when children recognize their independence and sep~ arateness from their mothers. If the early changes in person-object relationships may be described as moving from being one with the POSSESSIONS AND THE EXTENDED SELF 14? env ironment to having objects that aid the transition to a world where self is distinct from the environment, then the next changes may be characterized as moving from having transition objects to doing things with or lo Ihe environment.This motivation is labeled â€Å"competence† or â€Å"mastery† motivation (White 1959). Furby (1980) expanded this concept by suggesting that we develop a stronger sense of self by learning to actively control objects in our environment rather than feeling controlled by them. Furby and Wilke (1982) presented evidence showing that until six months of age the child may be most interested in simply controlling an object, whereas by twelve months the child is more interested in practicing emerging skills (e. g. , with blocks).In both cases, producing some intended effect by doing something with an object is the goal. Self Versus Others. Data from Kline and France (1899, pp. 446-447) and Isaacs (1935) suggest that the relationship between a per son and an object is never as simple as a person-thing bond, because other people often seek to control these objects: a great part ofthe value oflhose things which iittie children want to own is far from intrinsic. It arises directly from the fact that others have or want the object.And thus we enter the openfieldofrivalry. Not to have what others have, or to have less than they, is to fee) shut out from the love and regard ofthe person giving. It is to betreatedasnot loveworthy (Isaacs 1935, p. 74). In this sense, relationships with objects are never twoway (person-thing), but always three-way (personthing-person). This brings forth a meum ei mum concern with object ownership (Beaglehole 1932). The rivalry aspects of possessions seem clear among young children.Piaget (1932) reported that 8to 12-month-old children often display violent rage when a toy is taken from them and given to another child, Mueller (1978) and Mueller and Brenner (1977) found that between 80 and 90 percent of social interactions of children up to two years of age are focused on physical objects; the authors did not report what proportions of these interactions involved conflicts. Furby's (1982) examination of this issue revealed that for 18- to 21-month-olds, more than 85 percent of their object-oriented interactions with peers involved conflict about retaining possession instead of sharing or giving.Horney (1964) suggested that such competitiveness, along with other evidence of lack of affection from parents or peers, leads the child to compensate as an adult through neurotic strivings for power, prestige, and possessions. Although this may not be a complete explanation of these adult traits, it seems a more plausible basis for adult orientations toward possessions than are explanations via Freudian oral and anal fixations (Belk 1982a). Although receiving material objects may convey a sense of love and worth to the child (substituting ma- erial resources for love resources is difficult according to research by Foa and Foa 1974 and perceptual findings by Brinberg—Brinberg and Castell 1982; Brinberg and Wood 1983), from the parents' points of view, control of their children's material possessions offers a means o^ bringing about desired behaviors. Whiting (I960) provides a succinct model ofthis sort of resource mediated socialization: L Parents can use resources to reinforce behavior in three ways— a. Giving (e. g. , a â€Å"treat† for being â€Å"good†), b. Withholding (e. g. , no dessert until vegetables are eaten), c. Depriving (e. g. no more tc]evisioR viewing—something already â€Å"possessed†Ã¢â‚¬â€until the child â€Å"behaves†); 2. Resources involved must be— a. Scarce (i. e. , noX freely available to ihe child), b. Valued (at the time) by the child, c. Controlled by the parent; 3. Anticipations of resource availabiJily m ihe future can also be modified to mediate behavior through— a. Threats t o withhold or deprive resources, b. Promises to give resources. The way parents use such resource mediated behavioral modification not only affects behaviors—those concerning possessions as well as other ones—but also creates new attitudes toward the possessions used as reinforcements.For example, if sweets are withheld or deprived or if threats to do so are made, these actions may enhance the value of sweets, encourage the deiay of gratifications until unpleasant tasks are completed, or instill an attitude that good performance should be followed by indulgence. The potential effects of such socialization on adult material lifestyles are envisioned easily. Adolescence and Adulthood. Erikson (1959) suggested ihat adolescents predictably undergo an â€Å"identity crisis. † One hypothesis is that adolescents at this stage increasingly seek identity through acquiring and accumulating selected consumption objects.Montemayor and Eisen's (1911) study, which asked teena gers to describe who they are, found that this is true in early teenage years when respondents cited possessions, name, and location as part of who they are. However, in later teenage years, they found that respondents were more likely to cite skiils (e. g. , athletic, artistic) and traits (e. g. , expressions of moral character, self-sufficiency). A study of 8- to 30-yearold Chicagoans (Csikszentmihalyi and RochbergHallon 1981) found that this generation is more likely than its parents and grandparents to cite as favorite possessions those that reflect skills (e. .. athletic equipment) or objects which they can manipulate or 148 control (e. g. , musical instruments, stereo, pets). Material possessions such as clothing and automobiles are seen as an important source of prestige during high schooJ {Snyder ] 972), but there isprobably some tendency to ascribe such prestige to one's family rather than to one's self as an individual. These findings suggest that only certain types of pos sessions are valued as extensions of self during adolescence and that se/f-ciefinifion through doing things may de preferred to self-definition through having things.During preretirement adulthood, Csikszentmihalyi and Rochberg-Halton (1981) found that emphasis shifts from defining oneself by what one does to defining self through what one has. Furby (1978) found that 40- to 50-year-oIds are the most likely of all age groups to cite social power and status as reasons to own personal possessions. Csikszentmihalyi (1982, THE JOURNAL OF CONSUMER RESEARCH pp. 5-6) explains: A person who owns a nice home, a new car, good furniture, the latest appliances, is recognized by others as having passed the test of personhood in our society . . , the objects we possess and consume are . . wanted because. . . they tell us things about ourselves that we need to hear in order to keep our selves from falling apart. This information includes the social recognition that follows upon the display of stat us symbols, but it includes also the much more private feedback provided by special household objects that objectify a person's past, present, and future, as well as his or her close relationships. Olson (1981, 1985) found that young couples cite as favorite objects in the home those that reflect their future plans and goals, but older couples cite objects that relate to their experiences together.Cameron (1977) conducted a series of experiments suggesting that having children is a key life event that causes the parents to become less self-focused and more focused on their children. Feibleman (1975) notes the emergence of a tendency of parents by late middle age to live vicariously through their children. At this point, children represent an extension of self, but not lo the exclusion of material possessions. In fact, Belk (1985) found parents to be more materialistic and possessive tban their children and their own parents.Because of accumulated possessions, well-developed skills, possession of both a past and a future, and parenthood, the middle years of life also are likely to involve the most extended concept of self. Old Age. If the young are future-oriented, the old are past-oriented. Csifcszentmihafyi and RochbergHalton (1981) found that for their Chicago sample, such possessions as photographs, athletic trophies, and mementos are most treasured by grandparents. The reason most often cited for possessions being treasured by this group is that possessions have the ability to symbolize others, often because they are gifts from these important others.Sherman and fjewman (1977) found that postretirement-age persons who possess such remembrances are happier than those who do not. McCracken (1987a) suggests that homes for the aged would do well to consider the identity deprivation that occurs when these people are made to discard possessions. Places that are especially relevant to one's past have also been found to be particularly valued by the old because of the memories that places can stir (Howell 1983; Lowenthal 1975).In contrast, the youn$ tend to value places according to the activities these places facilitate (Csikszentmihalyi and Rochberg-Halton 1981; Hart 1979). During old age, the sense of one's own mortality also becomes more and more undeniable. With decreasing future years, declining skills and abilities, and a shrinking network of old friends, sense of self possibly contracts as well. However, this is not necessarily the case. Many people seek to assure that their selves will extend beyond their deaths.Lifton (1973) suggests five ways through which this extension may be attempted: (1) through one's children, (2) through belief in a life after death, (3) through one's works (e. g. , artistic, literary, scholarly), (4) through identification with nature (which -will continue), and (5) through experiential transcendence (e. g. , absorption in music may allow one to transcend the world of here and now and symbolically be reborn ). A sixth way, which is not mentioned†, is to have one's possessions (especially those in collections one has created) â€Å"live on† through heirs or museums (Rigby and Rigby 1949).Based on interviews with persons ages 62 to 85, interviews with their friends, relatives, and acquaintances, and an analysis of lelters, mementos, and conversations ofthe dying and their survivors, Unruh (1983) found evidence ofthe widespread use ofthis strategy. He detected first a solidification of identity through creating letters, journals, memos, and poems ihat were meant io be left behind. Second, artifacts including photographs, scrapbooks, souvenirs, and jewelry were accumulated.And third, these artifacts were distributed to persons who were believed to be willing to care for them, and in so doing honor and remember the donor. This distribution was accomplished through predeath gifts and wills and testaments. Western society seldom elevates reverence for ancestors to the level of Fa r Eastern cultures such as Japan and China, but Western society does revere its heroes' and villains' possessions, as illustrated by pilgrimages to Elvis Presley's Graceland mansion and William Randolf Hearst's castle (Maines 1978). Possessions and the Sense of Past Integral to a sense of who we are is a sense of our past.Possessions are a convenient means of storing the memories and feelings that attach our sense of past. A souvenir may make tangible some otherwise intangible travel experience. An heirloom may record and recall family heritage just as a historic monument may help to create a sense of a nation's past. POSSESSIONS AND THE EXTENDED SELF Overall, Csikszentmihalyi and Rochberg-Halton (J 981) found that the three types of possessions that the 3 i 5 Chicago families most frequently cite as treasured are furniture, visual art (including that created by family and friends), and photographs.In each case, the most frequently given explanation for valuing these objects is the memories they call forth of other people, occasions, and relationships. These reasons overshadow functional explanations for attachments to furniture and aesthetic reasons for valuing art objects and photographs. As one of tbeir informants explains (Rochberg-Halton 1984, p. 171): This [painting] is my great, great grandfather. I've had it since childhood. U's more than just a portrait—it's a personf I'd grab it right away in a fire. [Without it] my life would be lessened.I'd go on living, but it would deplete my secure â€Å"lump. † It would mean that I wouldn't be able to hand it down to my children. The kids already say, ‘Tm gonna inherit this and that. † . . . It's part of Ihe continuity of who I am, where I came from, where I'm going. Older respondents are especially likely to link such objects to past experiences. One explanation is that our attachment lo memor>'-evoking possessions grows as we accumulate experiences from our past and reduce the stock of pleasurable experiences likely to occur in our futures. Also, as Kastenbaum 1977) observes, â€Å"the older person scans the past for evidence that he once was competent, once was loved, once commanded respect. † Gifts received from others are one such evidence of love from significant others (Belk 1982c; Wallendorf and Arnold 1988). Thus, cherished possessions are not likely to be a random assortment of items that recall our pasts. Just as we pose family photographs to capture the â€Å"good† (happy) moments ofour lives and then selectively edit the best of these into albums (Chalfen 1987; Milgram 1976; Sontag 1973), we are also likely to treasure most tbose possessions associated with pleasant memories.These possessions are likely to include objects such as newspaper clippings and trophies representing past accomplishments, mementos of past romances, and souvenirs of enjoyable travel experiences, and to exclude others such as belongings of estranged former spouses , poor report cards, and gifts from suitors who later rejected us. Note that social institutions such as museums follow a similar process in selectively retaining aesthetic, scientific, and historical cultural artifacts. Mukerji (i 978) makes a di. -tinction between goods that are initially produced as art works and are acquired and retained based on presumably aesthetic judgments, and goods that are initially produced for more utilitarian purposes but are later regarded as worthy of preservation. Although the retention criteria are somewhat different for the two classes of objects, in both cases the decisions to retain tbe object rather than reject it determine the picture ofour cultural past that is available to future generations. Obviously, we are more ikely to chronicle our cultures' successes than their failures. The desire to know one's individual past can explain the retention of personal memorabilia, just as the desire to remember family heritage can explain retention of fa mily heirlooms and the desire to appreciate national history can explain museum patronage and visits to historic sites. However, what can explain the desire to acquire and collect antiques and antiquities from another lime, place, and family? Clearly, it is not a claimable sense of past that is achieved at any except the broadest level of identity.Part ofthe answer lies in the desire to identify wiih an era, place, or person to which we believe a desirable set of traits or values adheres. At a national level, neoclassical architecture seems to have this objective. At a more personal level, owning artifacts that once belonged to a famous historical figure seems to share this objective (Rigby and Rigby 1949; Waliendorf and Belk 1987). In each case, thereseems tobeadesire to bask in the giory ofthe past in the hope that some of it will magically rub off—a form of positive contaminaiion (Levi-Strauss 1963).This nostalgic desire to gain the glory ofthe superstar or of a mythical g olden age of the past shares something in common with the tendency McCracken (1988) describes as depositing and retrieving cultural meaning in places where it is unlikely to be disturbed by contradictions present in reality (e. g. , Davis 1979). Another reason tor the accumulalion of antiquities that are found or acquired rather than inherited or claimed on the basis of a more direct linkage lo the extended self is that antiques are rare and therefore potentially serve as symbols of status or â€Å"status markers† (Douglas and Isheru-ood 1979).Other motives might be found in the amusement of collecting curiosities, aesthetic preference for antiques over currently produced artifacts, and a preference for handcrafted works over current mass-produced works. However, each of these additional explanations relies on something of the extended self of the previous owner, artist, or craftsperson adhering to the work. Just as we seek to extend our selves by incorporating or owning cert ain objects, we may stili seek the sympathetic magic (contagion)